1. BIOSPHERE Ecosystems:- How do they work?

2. General Structure of the Earth The Earth is an integrated system that consists of rock, air, water, and living things that all interact with each other. Scientists divided this system into four parts: 1.Atmosphere 2.Hydrosphere 3.Geosphere 4.Biosphere

3. The Earth as a system – up close look

4. Parts of the earth's air, water, and soil where life is found Biosphere Smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical properties Ecosystem Community Population Organism A community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy; ABIOTIC with BIOTIC Populations of different species living in a particular place, and potentially interacting with each other A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place; specific geographical area and interbreed. Cell An individual living being The fundamental structural and functional unit of life Molecule Atom Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same or different elements

5. Abiotic Factors Non-living Soil Temperature Rainfall Photosynthesis Net primary productivity Biotic Factors Living Succession Biomass Biodiversity Trophic levels, food chains, webs Habitats and niches

6. Habitat vs. Niche Niche - the role a species plays in a community (job) Habitat- the place in which an organism lives out its life (address)

7. Biosphere The biosphere is the part of the Earth where life exists; a thin layer at the Earth’s surface that extends from about 9 km (5.5 miles) above the Earth’s surface down to the bottom of the ocean. made up of parts of the lithosphere, the atmosphere, and the hydrosphere. The biosphere is therefore made up of parts of the lithosphere, the atmosphere, and the hydrosphere.

8. 3 Factors that Sustain Life on Earth Solar energy –one way flow Cycling of crucial elements Gravity.

9.  Solar energy flowing through the biosphere warms the atmosphere, evaporates and recycles water, generates winds and supports plant growth.

10. Energy Flow through the Biophere Closed systems are systems that cannot exchange matter or energy with its surroundings. Open systems are systems that can exchange both matter and energy with its surroundings. Today, the Earth is essentially a CLOSED system with respect to matter, but an OPEN system for energy as energy travels from plant to animal which is eaten by other animals. In the process, some energy is lost as heat to the environment.

11. Energy Flow in Ecosystems- From Producers to Consumers Some producers get their energy directly from the sun by absorbing it and converting it to a food source. Consumers get their energy indirectly by eating producers or other consumers. Organisms break down carbohydrates and other organic compounds in their cells to obtain the energy they need, usually through aerobic respiration.

14. Types of Consumers: Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Decomposers- consumers that return nutrients from organic wastes back to the environment ex: bacteria & Fungi Detritivores-feed on the waste or dead bodies of other organisms ex: caterpillars/ vultures Each time an organism eats another organism, an energy transfer occurs. This transfer of energy can be traced by studying food chains, food webs, and trophic levels.

15. Detritivores and Decomposers on a Log

16. Food Chain A food chain is a sequence in which energy is transferred from one organism to the next as each organism eats another organism. A food web shows many feeding relationships that are possible in an ecosystem.

17. Trophic levels Each time energy is transferred, some of the energy is lost as heat. Therefore, less energy is available to organisms at higher trophic levels.

19. Pyramid of Energy Flow Fig 3.15

20. Trophic Levels/ Biomass More living organisms at the base of the pyramid = more biomass Showing energy loss from 1 trophic level to the next- grass stores 1,000 times more energy than the hawk at the top level.

21. Primary Productivity of Ecosystems Gross primary production (GPP) – Rate at which an ecosystem’s producers convert solar energy into chemical energy as biomass; the rate is crucial

22. Net Primary Production (NPP) NPP = GPP - respiration [by plants] – Rate at which producers use photosynthesis to store energy minus the rate at which they use some of this energy through respiration (R). Net primary production takes into account plant cellular respiration.

23. Nutrient Cycles Water Carbon Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulfur

24. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE Natural renewal of water quality: 3 major processes – Evaporation – Precipitation – Transpiration Alteration of the hydrologic cycle by humans – Withdrawal of large amounts of freshwater at rates faster than nature can replace it – Clearing vegetation leads to increased runoff – Increased flooding when wetlands are drained

25. Fig. 3-17, p. 66 Transpiration from plants Evaporation from land Precipitation to land Precipitation to ocean Evaporation from ocean Condensation Infiltration and percolation into aquifer Surface runoff Surface runoff Runoff Global warming Reduced recharge of aquifers and flooding from covering land with crops and buildings Aquifer depletion from overpumping Increased flooding from wetland destruction Point source pollution Groundwater movement (slow) Lakes and reservoirs Ice and snow Ocean Processes Processes affected by humans Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway

26. Carbon Cycle Depends on Photosynthesis and Respiration Link between photosynthesis in producers and respiration in producers, consumers, and decomposers Alteration of the carbon cycle by humans Additional CO 2 added to the atmosphere – Tree clearing – Burning of fossil fuels- energy and transportation

27. Fig. 3-18, p. 68 Pathway affected by humans Diffusion Transportation Deforestation Respiration Decomposition Forest fires Compaction Burning fossil fuels Photosynthesis Animals (consumers) Plants (producers) Marine food webs Producers, consumers, decomposers Carbon in plants (producers) Carbon in fossil fuels Carbon dioxide dissolved in ocean Carbon in limestone or dolomite sediments Carbon in animals (consumers) Processes Reservoir Natural pathway Carbon dioxide in atmosphere

28. Nitrogen Cycle Bacteria in action Alteration of the nitrogen cycle by humans Additional NO and N 2 O – Burning fuels – Destruction of forest, grasslands, and wetlands – Add excess nitrates to bodies of water – Remove nitrogen from topsoil

29. The Nitrogen Cycle

30. Annual Increase in Atmospheric N 2 Due to Human Activities

31. Fig. 3-19, p. 69 Decomposition Nitrogen loss to deep ocean sediments Nitrogen in atmosphere Nitrogen in ocean sediments Ammonia in soil Nitrate in soil Nitrogen in plants (producers) Nitrogen in animals (consumers) Volcanic activity Electrical storms Nitrogen oxides from burning fuel and using inorganic fertilizers Nitrates from fertilizer runoff and decomposition Nitrification by bacteria Denitrification by bacteria Uptake by plants Bacteria

32. Phosphorus Cycle Cycles through water, the earth’s crust, and living organisms May be limiting factor for plant growth Alteration of the phosphorous cycle by humans – Clearing forests – Mining and human wastes – Removing large amounts of phosphate from the earth to make fertilizers

33. Fig. 3-21, p. 71 Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Phosphates in mining waste Phosphates in sewage Animals (consumers) Bacteria Plants (producers) Phosphates in fertilizer Phosphate dissolved in water Phosphate in shallow ocean sediments Phosphate in deep ocean sediments Ocean food webs Phosphate in rock (fossil bones, guano) Sea birds Plate tectonics Erosion Runoff

34. Sulfur Cycle Sulfur found in organisms, ocean sediments, soil, rocks, and fossil fuels SO 2 in the atmosphere DMS (Dimethyl Sulfide)- produced by marine algae Sulfuric acid = acid rain; H 2 SO 4 and SO 4 - Alteration of the sulfur cycle by humans Burn sulfur-containing coal and oil – Refine sulfur-containing petroleum – Convert sulfur-containing metallic mineral ores

35. Fig. 3-22, p. 72 Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Dimethyl sulfide a bacteria byproduct Sulfur in ocean sediments Sulfur in soil, rock and fossil fuels Sulfur in plants (producers) Sulfur in animals (consumers) Sulfur dioxide in atmosphere Decay Uptake by plants Mining and extraction Sulfuric acid and Sulfate deposited as acid rain Smelting Burning coal Refining fossil fuels

36. Estimated Annual Average NPP in Major Life Zones and Ecosystems

37. BIODIVERSITY An important RENEWABLE resource 4 major kinds: – Genetic biodiversity- a variety of genetic material within a species or population Selective Breeding-Cultivated crops, dog breeds – Species Diversity- the variety among the species or distinct types of living organisms found in different habitats of the planet – Ecological Diversity- the variety of different biomes around the world; all biological communities – Functional Diversity- biological and chemical processes or functions such as energy flow and matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological communities

39. Relationships of Biotic Factors Pollination Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds Vegetation Succession Food Supply – Numerous food chains

40. Series of predictable changes that occur in a community over time – Physical environment – Natural disturbance – Human disturbance Pioneer species – Any of the first species to move into a devastated area Climax community – Fairly stable community that marks the end of succession Ecological Succession

41. Primary Succession Succession on land that occurs on surfaces where no soil exists –Volcanic eruptions –Glaciers melting

42. Fig. 5-16, p. 116 Time Exposed rocks Lichens and mosses Small herbs and shrubs Heath mat Jack pine, black spruce, and aspen Balsam fir, paper birch, and white spruce forest community

43. Secondary Succession Succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil Natural –hurricane –fires Human disturbances –Farming –Forest clearing –Pollution (oil spills)

44. Fig. 5-17, p. 117 Time Annual weeds Perennial weeds and grasses Shrubs and small pine seedlings Young pine forest with developing understory of oak and hickory trees Mature oak and hickory forest