1. Chapter 16 Toward a New Worldview 1540-1789

2. I. Major Breakthroughs of the Scientific Revolution (502-516) -w hat revolutionary discoveries were made in the 16 th & 17 th centuries?

3. A.Scientific Thought in 1500 Natural philosophy based on ideas of Aristotle Focused on fundamental questions about the nature of the universe, its purpose, & how it functioned Medieval revised Aristotelian view A motionless earth was fixed at the center of the universe & was encompassed by ten separate concentric crystal spheres, embedded with the moon sun, five planets, & stars which revolved around the sun Beyond 10 th sphere was Heaven, with throne of God & the souls of the saved Angels kept all spheres moving in perfect circles Ptolemy’s idea about planets Planets move in small circles, called epicycles, along a larger circle Predicted planetary motion Aristotle’s revised views also dominated thinking about physics & motion on earth Aristotle distinguished between the world of the celestial spheres & earth – the sublunary world-with the celestial spheres consisting of a perfect, incorruptible “quintessence” Earth made up of 4 elements: light elements (air & fire) & heavy elements (water & earth) Aristotelian thought believed a uniform force moved an object at constant speed & that the object would stop as soon as that force was removed Aristotle’s ideas accepted because they fit neatly with Christian doctrines with humans at the center of the universe in a “great chain of being” that stretched from God to the lowliest creatures on earth.

4. B. Origins of the Scientific Revolution Drew on longterm developments in European culture, as well as borrowings from Arabic scholars 14 th & 15 th centuries leading universities established new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, & optics within their faculties of philosophy, setting the stage for the union of mathematics & natural philosophy Quest to restore the glories of the ancient past led to the rediscovery of more classical texts, like Ptolemy’s Geography & an encyclopedia treatise on botany by Theophrastus Printing provided faster & less expensive way to spread ideas Navigational problems & rise of trade & colonization encourage development of new tech C.The Copernican Hypothesis Desire to explain & glorify God’s handiwork led to the first great departure from the medieval system Copernicus believed that stars & planets revolved around the sun Published book – On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres Scientific & religious implications suggest a universe of staggering size & destroys the Aristotelian idea that the earthly sphere is different from the heavenly one Some religious leaders rejected his Hypothesis CC declares Copernican hypothesis false in 1616

5. D. Brahe, Kepler, & Galileo: Proving Copernicus Right Danish noble, Tycho Brahe Europe’s leading astronomer with his observations of the new star in 1572 & he gained support of the king of Denmark to build the most sophisticated observatory of his time Brahe’s assistant is Johannes Kepler Johannes Kepler Rejected Ptolemy’s observations Created laws of Planetary Motion Orbits of planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular Planets don’t move at uniform speed in their orbits The time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is related precisely to its distance from the sun 1609 – Publishes first two laws in his book The New Astronomy Mathematically proved the precise relations of a sun-centered (solar)system United the theoretical cosmology of natural philosophy with mathematics & demolished the old system of Aristotle & Ptolemy Invented the telescope & basis for integral calculus & advances in Geometry Galileo Galilei Experimental method – the proper way to explore the workings of the universe was through repeatable experiments rather than speculation Gravity produces a uniform acceleration Proved Aristotelian physics wrong Telescope

6. Discovered four moons of jupitar – helps support Copernican theory Holy office of the Catholic church places the works of Copernicus & his supporters on a list of books Catholics are forbidden to read Galileo silences his beliefs until the publication of his Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World, which defended Copernicus’ views Papal Inquisition tried Galileo for heresy & imprisoned & tortured him Eventually recants his beliefs supporting Copernican views E.Newton’s Synthesis Viewed alchemy, mathematics & astronomy as the path to the truth of God’s creation Law of Universal Gravitation Every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe based on the objects’ quantity of matter & the distance between them Philosophicae Naturalis Principia Mathematica Laws of motion & mechanics explained

7. II.Important Changes in Scientific Thinking A. Bacon, Descartes, & the Scientific Method Francis Bacon (1561-1626) English politician & writer Greatest early propagandist for new experimental method Argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research & formalized the empirical method into the general theory of inductive reasoning known as empiricism Created the Royal Society which meet weekly to conduct experiments & discuss the latest findings of scholars across Europe Renee Descartes (1596-1650) Found a perfect correspondence between geometry & algebra Geometrical spatial figures could be expressed as algebraic equations & vice versa Discovered analytical geometry All occurrences in nature could be analyzed as matter in motion & that the total “quantity of motion” in the universe was constant Greatest achievement – developed philosophy of knowledge & science It is necessary to doubt everything & to use deductive reasoning from self-evident principles to ascertain scientific laws Reduces all substances to “matter” & “mind” – view called Cartesian dualism Bacon’s & Descartes’ methods are used to create the modern scientific method

8. B. Medicine, the Body, & Chemistry Scientific Revolution inspired renewed study of the microcosm of the human body & a reexamination of Galen’s idea of the four humors Paracelsus - Swiss Physician & alchemist (1493-1541) Used chemicals & drugs to treat what he viewed as chemical, instead of humoral, imbalances Andreas Vesalius – Flemish Physician (1516-1564) Studied anatomy by dissecting human bodies Book – On the Structure of the Human Body revolutionized understanding of human anatomy William Harvey – English royal physician (1578-1657) Discovered circulation of blood through the veins & arteries 1 st to explain that the heart works like a pump Robert Boyle (1627-1691) Believed nature is made up of atoms Boyle’s Law – the pressure of a gas varies inversely with volume

9. C. Empire & Natural History Scholars catalogued forms of life in northern Europe, Asia, & the Americas in encyclopedias of natural history Much of the new knowledge in encyclopedias are from scientific expeditions sponsored by European gov. Collecting natural history specimens leads to the creation of many public musuems, including the British Museum in London. D. Science & Technology Advent of modern science leads to an international scientific community linked by common interests & shared values, as well as by journals & scientific societies Science becomes competitive Governments begin to intervene to support & sometimes direct research Scientists develop a critical attitude toward established authority that inspired thinkers to question traditions in other domains Craftsmen became interested in scientific ideas, & the practice of science in the 17 th C often relied on artisans’ expertise inmaking instruments & conducting precise experiments “rational” methods for approaching nature didn’t question traditional inequalities between the sexes Some female intellectuals fully engaged in the philosophical dialogue of the time through salons, experiments, & writing

10. III.The Enlightenment (pgs. 516-537) Guiding Question – What new ideas about society & human relations emerged in the Enlightenment, & what new practices & institutions enabled these ideas to take hold? Concepts central to Enlightenment thinking: Rationalism – a secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was accepted on faith & everything was submitted to reason Use of the scientific method to discover the laws of human society & nature Progress – the idea that it was possible to create better societies & people A. The Emergence of the Enlightenment European Enlightenment (1690-1789) was a broad intellectual & cultural movement The generation after Newton’s Principia in 1687 provided the link between the Scientific Revolution & a new outlook on life. Enlightenment thinkers believed that their era had gone far beyond antiquity & that intellectual progress was possible They set an agenda of human problems to be addressed through the methods of science Exploration & the excitement of the Scientific Revolution generated doubt & uncertainty, which contributed to a widespread crisis in European thought Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) French Huguenot who examined the religious beliefs & persecutions of the past in his Historical & Critical Dictionary. Concluded that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt (skepticism)

11. Baruch Spinoza – Dutch Jewish philosopher (1632-1677) Mind & body are united in one substance and that God & nature were two names for the same think Envisioned a deterministic universe in which good & evil were merely relative values & human actions were shaped by outside circumstances, not free will. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716) Idea of an infinite number of substances from which all matter is composed Theodicy – world must be “the best of all possible worlds” because it was created by an omnipotent & benevolent God John Locke – Essay Concerning Human Understanding all ideas are derived from experience The human mind at birth is a blank tablet on which the environment, including education & social institutions, write the individual’s understandings & beliefs Sensationalism – idea that all human ideas & thoughts are produced as a result of sensory impressions B.Influence of the Philosophes Enlightenment’s spirit of inquiry & debate owed a great deal to the philosophes Philosophes are a group of intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of reason to their ignorant fellow humans France is hub of Enlightenment b/c: French was the international language of the educated classes Louis XV’s unpopularity generated calls for reform among educated elite French philosophes made it their goal to reach a larger audience of cities

12. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) The Persian Letters – social satire in which two Persian travelers criticize European customs & beliefs The Spirit of Laws – promoted liberty, argued for separation of powers, with political power divided & shared by a variety of classes & legal estates Theory of separation of powers greatly impacted the US & French constitutions Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire) Mixed the glorification of science & reason with an appeal for better individuals & institutions In politics he was pessimistic about the ability of humans to govern themselves, concluding that the best one could hope for was a good monarch, & didn’t believe in social & economic equality in human affairs Deist Hated all forms of religious intolerance Greatest achievements of the philosophes was a group effort All their ideas could be found in Denis Diderot’s Encyclopedia Encyclopedia exalted science & the industrial arts, while questioning religion & criticizing intolerance, injustice, & outdated social institutions

13. C.Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Swiss) 1712-1778 Committed to individual freedom, but attacked rationalism & civilization as destroying, rather than liberating the individual Called for a rigid division of gender roles, arguing that because women were destined by nature to assume a passive role in sexual relations, they should also be subordinate in social life Privileged women should renounce their frivolous ways & stay home to care for their children Social Contract – argued that the general will is sacred & absolute & reflects the common interests of all the people, though not necessarily the will of the majority, which may be correctly interpreted by a farseeing minority. D.The International Enlightenment Enlightenment spreads throughout Europe & its colonies Catholic Enlightenment aimed to renew & reform the Church from within through divine grace, instead of human will Scottish Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on common sense & scientific reasoning & was stimulated by the creation of the first public educational system in Europe David Hume – (1711-1776) Argued that the human mind is really nothing but a bundle of impressions that originate only in sensory experiences & our habits of joining these experiences together Since our ideas reflect only our sensory experiences, our reason cannot tell us anything about questions that cannot be verified by sensory experience such as the origin of the universe or the existence of god Rationalistic inquiry undermined the Enlightenment’s faith in the power of reason

14. Adam Smith (Scottish Enlightenment) Theory of Moral Sentiments – the thriving commercial life of the 18 th C produced civic virtue through competition, fair play, & individual autonomy An Inquiry into the Nature & Causes of the Wealth of Nations – believed gov. should not prevent commerce from reaching its full capacity (Laissez-faire economics) Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson & others are heavily influenced by ideas of Locke & Montesquieu Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – German philosopher Argued that if intellectuals were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print, enlightenment would almost surely follow Tried to reconcile absolute monarchial authority & religious faith with a critical public sphere Insisted that individuals must obey all laws, no matter how unreasonable Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) Pleaded for reform of the penal system Wanted to get rid of torture, arbitrary imprisonment, & capital punishment & advocating the prevention of crime over the reliance on punishment

15. E.Urban Culture & Life in the Public Sphere Growth in European production & consumption of books encouraged the spread of enlightened ideas Reading becomes an individual & silent activity & texts are questioned Conversation, discussion, & debate found fertile ground in the salons of Paris Salons usually hosted by women such as Madame de Deffand In salons, members of the philosophers, nobility, & prosperous middle classes intermingled & influenced one another Elite women also exercised great influence on artistic taste in the development of a style called rococo Rococo is art characterized by soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, & starry-eyed lovers protected by cupid Some philosophers claimed that the position & treatment of women were the best indicators of a society’s level of civilization & decency The coffeehouses (salons) became meccas of philosophical discussion Philosophes didn’t direct their message to peasants or urban laborers, believing that the masses had no time or talent for philosophical speculation & that elevating them would be a long & potentially dangerous process Ideas of the philosophes did find an audience among some of the common people as literacy rates rose, book prices dropped, & many ideas were popularized in cheap pamphlets & through public reading

16. F.Race & Enlightenment Scientific Revolution’s insistence on careful empirical observation unleashed the urge to classify nature, a primary catalyst for new ideas about race System of Nature – Carl von Linne argued that nature was organized into a God-given hierarchy Humans begin to be hierarchically ordered “races” & to investigate the origins of race The comte de Buffon argued that humans originated with one species that then developed into distinct races due largely to climatic conditions David Humme – Of Natural Characters “All other species of men” were “naturally inferior to the whites.” Immanuel Kant – On the Different Races of Man Claimed that white inhabitants of northern Germany were the closest descendants of the original race Europeans had vied themselves as culturally superior to the “barbaric” peoples of Africa & the New World New ideas about racial difference claimed Europeans were biologically superior as well Scientific racism helped justify growth of slavery If one “race” of humans was fundamentally different & inferior, its members could be seen as fit for enslavement Abbe Raynal – History of the Two Indies Attacked slavery & the abuses of European colonization James Beattie (Scottish philosopher) pointed out that Europeans had started out as savage as nonwhites & many non-European peoples had achieved high levels of civilization

17. IV.Enlightened Absolutism Guiding Question – What impact did new ways of thinking have on political developments & monarchial absolutism? Most Enlightenment thinkers outside of England & the Netherlands concluded that benevolent absolutism offered the best opportunities for improving society Some absolutist rulers were interested in ideas for improving their society & tried to make reforms in accordance with Enlightenment ideas = Enlightened Absolutism A.Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786) Frederick II had a standing army inherited by his father, Frederick William I Invaded the Habsburg dominions when Maria Theresa of Austria took rule Begins European War of the Austrian Succession Maria Theresa is forced to cede almost all of Silesia to Prusia Maria Theresa formas alliance with leaders of France & Russia to get her land back from Russia – Seven Year’s War Frederick’s interest in territorial expansion wanes & he considers how more humane policies for his subjects might be a way to strengthen the state Allows Freedom of Religion & philosophical beliefs Improves schools & allows scholars to publish their findings Simplified Prussian Law, abolition of torture, & improvement of legal procedures Prussian officials become famous for their hard work & honesty After Seven Year’s War ended, Frederick’s gov. promoted the reconstruction of agriculture & industry

18. Frederick referred to himself as “the first servant of the state” Although he condemned serfdom, he accepted it in practice & didn’t free the serfs on his own estates Also accepted & extended privileges of the nobility Reformed Prussia’s bureaucracy Drew on principals of cameralism – idea that monarchy was best form of government, & that all elements of society should be placed at the service of the state State should use its resources & authority to improve society B.Catherine the Great of Russia (1762-1796) Catherine comes to the throne after her husband Peter III is killed in a coup b/c they are unhappy with their withdrawal from the Seven Year’s War Set out to rule in an enlightened manner but w/out questioning absolutism Wanted to continue Peter the great’s effort to bring the culture of western Europe to Russia Brought masterpieces of Western art, wrote plays, patronized Diderot & the Enclyclopedia, & corresponded with Voltaire Domestic Reform Appointed a legislative commission to prepare a new law code Restricted practices of torture Allowed limited religious toleration Tried to improve education Strengthen local government

19. Pugachev’s rebellion Was a soldier who led an uprising of serfs that resulted in the slaughter of landlords & officials Quickly put down by Catherine After 1775 Catherine gives nobles absolute control of serfs Extended serfdom into new areas & freeing nobles forever from taxes & state service Territorial expansion Subjugated the last descendants of the Mongols & the Crimean Tartars & beginning the conquest of the Caucasus Catherine’s success in expansion threatened balance of power in eastern Europe Prussia, Austria, & Russia decide to divide up Polish territory By 1795, after 3 partitions, the ancient republic of Poland had vanished from the map

20. C. Austrian Habsburgs Maria Theresa of Austria Sought to reform Austria through traditional power politics Church reforms aimed to limit the papacy’s influence Eliminate many religious holidays Reduced number of monasteries Administrative Reforms Strengthened central bureaucracy Smoothed out provincial differences Revamped tax system Reduction in power of lords over serfs & peasant tenants improved the lot of the agricultural population Joseph II (Maria’s son) drew upon enlightenment ideas Abolished serfdom in 1781 1789 decree allowed peasants to pay landlords in cash rather than through labor on their land Violently rejected by nobility & peasants Leopold II (Joseph’s brother) Cancelled Joseph’s radical edicts Reestablished the requirement that peasants perform forced labor for their lords Eastern European absolutists succeed in expanding the role of the state in the life of the society by combining old-fashioned state building with the culture & critical thinking of the Enlightenment Failed to implement humane & enlightened social policies suggests the inherent limitations in Enlightenment thinking about equality & justice, rather than deficiencies in their execution of Enlightenment programs

21. D.Jewish Life & the Limits of Enlightened Absolutism Jewish people lived in overcrowded, tiny ghettos & are excluded by law from most professions & are often ordered out of kingdoms Rulers relied on Jewish bankers for loans to raise armies & run their kingdoms Jewish merchants & traders are prominent in international trade Haskalah (Enlightenment movement within Jewish community) Led by Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn Advocated for freedom & civil rights for European Jews Accompanied period of controversial social change within Jewish communities that loosened rabbinic controls & increased interaction with Christians 1753 British law allowing naturalization of Jews is repealed due to public outrage Most progressive reforms took place in Austria under Joseph II Integrated Jews more fully into society Eligibility for military service Removal of special clothing requirements Reforms raised fears among traditionalists in general population Frederick the Great Opposed general emancipation for the Jews, as he did for the serfs Catherine the Great established the Pale of Settlement (1791) Territory including parts of modern-day Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, & Belarus, where most Jews were required to live

22. France, during the French Revolution is the first to remove all restrictions on Jews Over the next 100 years, Jews gradually win full legal & civil rights throughout western Europe Emancipation in eastern Europe took even longer & created more conflict & violence