2. Exploring The Concept of Environmental Vulnerability: Critical Considerations LEONARD A. NURSE

3. WHAT IS VULNERABILITY? Vulnerability can be defined as: The degree to which a natural system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with the effects of external stimuli. The degree of vulnerability is a function of: (i)The characteristics and magnitude of the stimuli to which the system is exposed; (ii)The sensitivity of the system; and (iii)The adaptive capacity of the system.

4. SOME COMMON ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CARIBBEAN Mountainous, rugged, geologically unstable slopes; Low-lying coastal plains – in some cases with an elevation at or below m.s.l.; Countries generally of volcanic or coralline origin; With a few exceptions (e.g. Cuba, Jamaica, Guyana), small land masses relative to biodiversity abundance; Proneness to natural hazards: volcanic activity, landslides, tsunamis, hurricanes, earthquakes, drought, floods, etc; For most countries, unfavourable spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall; Generally thin groundwater lenses – a critical factor in water scarcity.

5. CHALLENGES FACING SIDS The suite of environmental vulnerabilities facing SIDS can be classified into 5 groups: 1.Natural hazards, e.g. hurricanes, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions etc. 2.Internal, low-intensity, extensive anthropogenic hazards, e.g deforestation, which over time reduce intrinsic resilience. 3.Externally-driven, high intensity, anthropogenic hazards, e.g. transport of toxic waste. 4. Global climate change – effects particularly severe on SIDS. 5.Acquired vulnerabilities.

6. EXAMPLE: FRAGILITY OF BEACH SYSTEM While Caribbean beaches continue to be an important economic resource, we must recognize that most of them are relatively fragile systems, whose equilibrium can be easily disturbed. The peculiar geomorphology of the beaches renders them vulnerable:  Small Littoral Cells: Caribbean shorelines tend to be characterized by small littoral cells, separated by headlands. The cells communicate with each other via processes of energy and sediment exchange.  Seasonal Changes in Beach Dynamics: Beach planform, morphology and sand distribution change from winter to summer, in response to directional shifts in dominant waves.  Limited Sand Supply: Typically sand supply is scarce, thus many beaches are in precarious equilibrium. Any action, whether natural or man-induced, which leads to a negative sediment balance will promote erosion and beach degradation.

7. EXAMPLE: FRESHWATER SCARCITY The availability of water resources will be a key limiting factor on economic and social development in the region. Water availability is also climate-sensitive. Many countries depend on a single source of supply, which enhances their vulnerability – e.g. Barbados, Antigua, The Bahamas rely almost totally on groundwater. Groundwater availability is controlled by: (i)Size of groundwater lens; (ii)Rate of aquifer recharge; (iii)Spatial and temporal variation in rainfall; (iv)Rate of drawdown.

8. CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA-LEVEL RISE Climate change will enhance the vulnerability of SIDS in many ways, but the adverse effects will be particularly noticeable along coastal areas, as a consequence of sea-level rise (SLR). SLR will lead to major water level changes, which will cause, inter alia: 1.Flooding/inundation of beach and backshore, by shifting the surf zone landward; 2.Exaggeration of amplitude and energy of waves and increase in surge and tidal levels → increased scouring and erosion; 3.Increased mobility of sand grains → leaving beach more susceptible to wave action. 4.Reduced resilience in other coastal and marine ecosystems, e.g. seagrasses, mangroves.

10. DEVELOPING A STRATEGY FOR MANAGING VULNERABILITY Given the nature and range of environmental challenges confronting SIDS, vulnerability reduction can only be successfully tackled by employing a variety of strategies: 1.Monitoring: measurement, assessment and prediction – these activities help to define (a) the characteristics and intrinsic dynamics of the system; (b) the extent of the problem, including the spatial and temporal parameters. (c)Likely future system trends (i.e. whether there will be system improvement or deterioration); (d)the nature and timing of the interventions required to improve the ‘robustness’ of system under stress.

11. MANAGING VULNERABILITY (CONT’D) 2. Maintaining and improving resilience of system – importance of practices such as:  recognition of carrying capacity and sustained yields;  reduction of pollution loading;  maintenance of endemism in the system;  maintenance of species diversity, uniqueness and abundance;  Employing the wisdom of traditional /local knowledge.

12. MANAGING VULNERABILITY (CONT’D) 3.Building technical and institutional capacity to manage dynamic environmental systems. This is largely an internal process, which can be accomplished with external assistance:  Training of specialists in critical fields : e.g. in a region where water is a scarce resource in many countries, how many groundwater geologists, hydrologists and hydrological engineers do we have available?  How effective and enforceable are our regulations and legislation?  Are our institutions still maintaining a ‘blinkered’ sectoral focus, unconcerned with interlinkages?

13. MANAGING VULNERABILITY (CONT’D) 4.Use of appropriate multilateral environmental agreements. These can be a catalyst for SIDS to revamp their internal management systems, through access to critical resources and improved understanding of systems. 5.International assistance and partnerships, which can take many forms:  North – south cooperation  South – south cooperation  Continuing to build strategic alliances with agencies, e.g. UNDESA, UNDP, UNEP, ECLAC, UNITAR etc.

14. MANAGING VULNERABILITY (CONT’D) Vulnerability is a useful ‘lens’ through which the international community should assess strategies for socio-economic development of SIDS. Vulnerability forces one to consider the critical human- environment interlinkages, carrying capacity, sustainable yields etc. - e.g. Guyana and Belize can grow their GDP rapidly by cutting down all their forests for production of lumber, pulp and paper. However, this would reduce their natural resilience as countries, and increase their intrinsic vulnerability. Vulnerability as ‘filtering mechanism’ for assessing projects, will prevent countries, agencies and donors from designing and implementing projects which promote ecosystem failure and reduce natural resilience: e.g. stimulation of commercial crop production that accelerates soil erosion and contributes tonnes of agricultural chemicals to the fluvial and coastal systems.

15. FINAL MESSAGE The natural environment is the life-support of all human systems, especially in SIDS. It is not a commodity that should be set aside merely for the wealthy to enjoy. Environmental vulnerability speaks to the risk of damage to a country’s natural capital, and by extension threatens the likelihood that it can achieve sustainable development. Concept of vulnerability provides the best methodological context for planning the sustainable development of SIDS.