1. How are experiential and interpersonal meanings communicated in translation? Dr. Ghurmallah Alghamdi

2. Lexical choices Literal translation is so impractical. Most translations are done at the level of small units such as words or clauses. A professional translator will not stop at this level because languages are not a nomenclature( TAXNOMY ) for a set of concepts. If they are like that so learning foreign languages would be easier.

3. Continuation Equivalence at the lexical levels among languages may not exist. This is why corpus linguistics can be of benefit to translators,because it helps to distinguish senses by collocation. A term used to refer to the habitual co-occurrence of individual lexical items,such as alphabet letter,graphic letter etc.

4. Grammatical possibilities in languages Word order : Modern English is known for its relative lack of morphological inflection and hence its reliance on word order to reflect grammatical relationship. (SVO).

5. Grammatical Gender Some grammatical choices which are optional in one language are obligatory in another, for example, the gendering of nouns and pronous Fat or thin (saminah or nahifah).

6. How is Textual Meaning Created in the Course of Translation? Thematic progression The preferences and possibilities for thematic progression also differ across languages. The high frequency of I as theme helps to maintain a sense of continuity and a coherent point of view. However the thematic structure of the Arabic translation original for a number of reasons. First, Arabic rarely uses independent pronouns because Arabic verbs are inflected for person.

7. How does an interpreter manage the flow of meaning? Interpreting textual meaning The contexts in which oral interpreters are formally employed are often highly sensitive. Unlike the translator, who generally has time accomplished in something close to real-time. This generally entails using grammatical clues, such as discourse markers and intonation, to identify the pragmatic force.

8. How does an interpreter manage th flow of meaning? (Continuation) Conveying interpersonal meaning Whereas a translator of written texts may be aiming to become invisible, the same cannot be said of an oral interpreter. Interpreters must be able to alternate easily and fluently amongst…. different styles of English… characterised by a particular lexis, style and grammatical structure and how they must be able to recognise implied meanings regardless of the grammatical form.

9. What happens to languages as a result of translation? Additionality Subsidiarity Comitology

10. Conclusion It is the task of the translator to focus on the underlying meaning rather than the surface form. This may entail adapting the interpersonal tenor to match local cultural expectations, or changing the ways in which textual cohesion or thematic progression are expressed. Need to anticipate what is coming next before it has been uttered. Also screen translators may need to reduce grammatical complexity because of space and time constraints.

11. Dictionaries past In the production of earlier dictionaries, the compiling of evidence on the meaning and behaviour of words was a very arduous process. The lexicographers had to read through a lot of books, and when they found a particular example of word, they would painstakingly write it out on a card with the context in which it was found and send it to the editor of the dictionary they were working on. The major difference is that the OED aimed to document the history of words, while today we mainly compile synchronic dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that show how a word is used today.

12. Dictionaries present The use of real attested language to exemplify the meanings of words. All modern dictionaries have in common is that lexicographers draw widely on large corpora of natural language in order to make decisions about word meaning, collocation, phraseology, and grammatical patterning.

13. Type of Dictionaries Monolingual dictionaries for native speakers Monolingual learner’s dictionaries for non-native speakers Bilingual dictionaries Dictionaries of dialect or regional varieties Children’s dictionaries Specialist dictionaries on subjects.

14. The Use of Corpora to Establish Meaning Establishing the meaning of words A major task for lexicographers is the discrimination of senses, or the different meanings of words. The lexicographer analyses a set of concordance lines in order to find out the senses of a word..

15. Continue Identifying Phraseology Words do not function in isolation. Sinclair distinguishes between what he calls ‘open-choice principle’ and the ‘idiom principle’. The open-choice principle is a way of seeing language text as the result of a very large number of complex choices. The principle of idiom is that a language user has available to him or her a large number of semi- preconstructed phrases that constitute single choices.

16. Continue Identifying idioms Identifying collocations Both learner’s dictionaries and monolingual native speaker dictionaries contain information about collocation or, as Firth (1957) put it, the ‘company’ that words keep. The native speaker dictionary, EWED, on the other hand, has no way of showing collocations except through typical examples.

17. The Structure of Dictionary Entries The alphabetical ordering of entries The identifying of senses The inclusion of inflections The wording of definitions

18. The Inclusion of Grammatical Information in a Dictionary Word class and grammatical pattern The major grammatical pattern codes used by CCED are as follow: v; n; adj; that;-ing; to-inf; wh; with quote; Sense and grammatical pattern What is the difference between a dictionary and a grammar?

19. Descriptive versus Pedagogic Grammars As the name suggests, a pedagogic grammar is one which has been adapted for teaching and learning purpose, not only for students and teachers of their own mother tongue, but also for students and teachers of English as a foreign language, or of other languages. Not all grammar that can be described can also be easily taught: different types and categories of learner, learners at different stages of learning in different types of school or college, teachers working with different syllabuses, all make demands on the shape of the grammar.

20. Ways of Teaching and Learning Grammar Grammar seen as a product Grammar seen as a process Grammar seen as a skill.

21. Continued Grammar seen as a product According to Batstone, this approach takes a product perspective on grammar, with teaching structured round a careful specification of language forms which provide the target language for to be more precise the targeted language for each lesson.

22. Continued Grammar seen as a process A process approach, on the other hand, engages learners in language use, formulating their own meanings in contexts over which they have considerable control, and in so doing, drawing on grammar as an ongoing resource.

23. Continued Grammar seen as a skill Seeing grammar as a skill essentially seeks to combine product with process, avoiding the dangers of grammar divorced from use. When we teach grammar as a skill, the learner is required to attend to grammar, while working on tasks which retain an emphasis on language use.

24. Grammar and Testing Grammar