1. 1 CHAPTER 10 – Risk and Return

2. 2 Questions to be addressed Differentiate between standalone risk and risk in a portfolio. How are they measured? What is market risk? How many stocks must a portfolio contain to be well diversified? What is risk aversion? How is risk aversion related to the return of a stock? What is CAPM? What is SML (security market line) in CAPM?

3. 3 What are investment returns? Investment returns measure the financial results of an investment. Returns may be historical or prospective (anticipated). Returns can be expressed in: Dollar terms. Percentage terms.

4. 4 An investment costs $1,000 and is sold after 1 year for $1,100. Dollar return: Percentage return: $ Received - $ Invested $1,100 - $1,000 = $100. $ Return/$ Invested $100/$1,000 = 0.10 = 10%.

5. 5 What is investment risk? Typically, investment returns are not known with certainty. Investment risk pertains to the probability of earning a return less than that expected. The greater the chance of a return far below the expected return, the greater the risk.

6. 6 Stand-Alone Risk Standard deviation measures the stand- alone risk of an investment. The larger the standard deviation, the higher the probability that returns will be far below the expected return.

7. 7 Stand-Alone: Risk Probability Distribution: Which stock is riskier? Why?

8. 8 Stand-Alone: Calculate the expected rate of return r = expected rate of return. ^ n ∑ r = ^ i=1 riPi.riPi.

9. 9 Stand-Alone: What is the standard deviation of returns? σ = Standard deviation σ = √ Variance = √ σ 2 n ∑ i=1 = √ (r i – r) 2 P i. ^

10. 10 Stand-Alone: Coefficient of Variation (CV) CV = Standard deviation / expected return CV shows the risk per unit of return. Thus, the lower the CV, the better investment.

11. 11 Portfolio Expected Return r p = Σ w i r i r p is a weighted average (w i is % of portfolio in stock i): ^ ^^ n i = 1  p depends on the correlations between stocks : 

12. 12 Two-Stock Portfolios Two stocks can be combined to form a riskless portfolio if  = -1.0. Risk is not reduced at all if the two stocks have  = +1.0. In general, stocks have  ≈ 0.35, so risk is lowered but not eliminated. Investors typically hold many stocks. What happens when  = 0?

13. 13 Adding Stocks to a Portfolio What would happen to the risk of an average 1-stock portfolio as more randomly selected stocks were added?  p would decrease because the added stocks would not be perfectly correlated, but the expected portfolio return would remain relatively constant.

14. 14   stock ≈ 35%  Many stocks ≈ 20%

15. 15 102030 40 2,000 stocks Company Specific (Diversifiable) Risk Market Risk 20% 0 Stand-Alone Risk,  p pp 35% Risk vs. Number of Stock in Portfolio

16. 16 Stand-alone risk = Market risk + Diversifiable risk Market risk is that part of a security’s stand-alone risk that cannot be eliminated by diversification. Firm-specific, or diversifiable, risk is that part of a security’s stand-alone risk that can be eliminated by diversification.

17. 17 Conclusions As more stocks are added, each new stock has a smaller risk-reducing impact on the portfolio.  p falls very slowly after about 40 stocks are included. The lower limit for  p is about 20%=  M. By forming well-diversified portfolios, investors can eliminate about half the risk of owning a single stock. Investors are compensated for bearing risk (beta, not  )

18. 18 Can an investor holding one stock earn a return commensurate with its risk? No. Rational investors will minimize risk by holding portfolios. They bear only market risk, so prices and returns reflect this lower risk. The one-stock investor bears higher (stand-alone) risk, so the return is less than that required by the risk.

19. 19 How is market risk measured for individual securities? Market risk, which is relevant for stocks held in well-diversified portfolios, is defined as the contribution of a security to the overall riskiness of the portfolio. It is measured by a stock’s beta coefficient. For stock i, its beta is:  i = (  i,M  i ) /  M =COV i,M / VARIANCE M Correlation of two sets of data: CORREL(cell1 of group1:cell2 of group1, cell1 of group2:cell2 of group2).

20. 20 How are betas calculated? Beta is the measure of a stock’s risk, not standard deviation. In addition to measuring a stock’s contribution of risk to a portfolio, beta also which measures the stock’s volatility relative to the market.

21. 21 Using a Regression to Estimate Beta Run a regression with returns on the stock in question plotted on the Y axis and returns on the market portfolio plotted on the X axis. The slope of the regression line, which measures relative volatility, is defined as the stock’s bta coefficient, or . Beta: slope (cell1 of group1:cell2 of group1, cell1 of group2:cell2 of group2).

22. 22 Calculating Beta for PQU

23. 23 Calculating Beta in Practice Many analysts use the S&P 500 to find the market return. Analysts typically use four or five years’ of monthly returns to establish the regression line. Some analysts use 52 weeks of weekly returns.

24. 24 How is beta interpreted? If  = 1.0, stock has average risk. If  > 1.0, stock is riskier than average. If  < 1.0, stock is less risky than average. Most stocks have  in the range of 0.5 to 1.5. Can a stock have a negative  ?

25. 25 Web Sites for Beta Go to http://finance.yahoo.com Enter the ticker symbol for a “Stock Quote”, such as IBM or Dell, then click GO. When the quote comes up, select Key Statistics from panel on left.

26. 26 Calculate beta for a portfolio  p = Weighted average of beta = w 1  1 + w 2  2 +…+w n  n

27. 27 CAMP and SML (security market line) – Has the CAPM been completely confirmed or refuted? No. The statistical tests have problems that make empirical verification or rejection virtually impossible. Investors’ required returns are based on future risk, but betas are calculated with historical data. Investors may be concerned about both stand-alone and market risk.

28. EXCEL Command Summary: Average: average(cell1, cell2 ) Standard Deviation: stdve (cell1, cell2) Correlation of two sets of data: CORREL(cell1 of group1:cell2 of group1, cell1 of group2:cell2 of group2). Regression  : slope (cell1 of group1:cell2 of group1, cell1 of group2:cell2 of group2). 28

29. Equations:Portfolio 29

30. Equations: individual stock 30