1. VIRTUE ETHICS 1: Is living well more than applying moral rules? Learning today: To be able to explain the basis of Virtue Ethics and relate this to other ethical theories. To be able to evaluate traditional Virtue Ethics’ model of human nature.

2. What kind of qualities would you need to be a good… Kantian Kantian Consequentialist Consequentialist Natural Lawyer Natural Lawyer If you had these qualities, would you be a ‘good’ person, or would you need other qualities too?

3. Greek ideas about morality How do we live a ‘good life’? How do we live a ‘good life’? ‘Good’ less about right and wrong with regard to rights, more about whether one is fulfilling one’s function as a human being. ‘Good’ less about right and wrong with regard to rights, more about whether one is fulfilling one’s function as a human being.

4. Virtue Ethics and other systems: Whereas consequentialist and deontological theories centre on the question `What should I do?' Virtue ethics focuses on the question ‘What sort of person should I be?’ (in the background – ‘How would a virtuous person act now?’ Whereas consequentialist and deontological theories centre on the question `What should I do?' Virtue ethics focuses on the question ‘What sort of person should I be?’ (in the background – ‘How would a virtuous person act now?’ Virtue Ethics not so much concerned with particular acts, but with the whole of a person’s life. Virtue Ethics not so much concerned with particular acts, but with the whole of a person’s life.

5. Aristotle explored the different things that people aim for in their lives. Aristotle explored the different things that people aim for in their lives. 'Every art and every enquiry, every action and choice, is thought to aim at some good‘ 'Every art and every enquiry, every action and choice, is thought to aim at some good‘ Also believed that success (the ‘good’) in any particular activity was valuable because it contributed to an ‘ultimate’ good – the Good for human beings. Also believed that success (the ‘good’) in any particular activity was valuable because it contributed to an ‘ultimate’ good – the Good for human beings.

6. Questions: Does human life have a built-in purpose and natural, ultimate ‘goal’ – ‘the Good’? Does human life have a built-in purpose and natural, ultimate ‘goal’ – ‘the Good’? - activities, p115, 117 If so, where do we get this idea from? If not, why not? If so, where do we get this idea from? If not, why not?

7. The Good: Must be an ‘end’: we always choose it for itself, and never for any other reason.’ Must be an ‘end’: we always choose it for itself, and never for any other reason.’ Must be the final end: ‘that for the sake of which everything else is done.’ Must be the final end: ‘that for the sake of which everything else is done.’ Must be self-sufficient: ‘which by itself makes life desirable’ Must be self-sufficient: ‘which by itself makes life desirable’ Must be a life that we all want: ‘the most desirable of all things.’ Must be a life that we all want: ‘the most desirable of all things.’ Must be something that is related to us as human beings. Must be something that is related to us as human beings.

8. Possible candidates: Pleasure Pleasure Wealth Wealth Honour Honour Moral goodness Moral goodness Contemplation Contemplation - What are the strengths/weaknesses of each? - Are any sufficient aims for human life?

9. Aristotle: The natural end, fulfilment or goal of human existence is ‘flourishing’, or ‘eudaimonia’ The natural end, fulfilment or goal of human existence is ‘flourishing’, or ‘eudaimonia’ sometimes translated as ‘happiness’, but more like ‘contentment through activity’. sometimes translated as ‘happiness’, but more like ‘contentment through activity’.

10. Aristotle (384-322 BCE) All things in nature have a PURPOSE or FUNCTION (telos), which it is their natural tendency to fulfill. All things in nature have a PURPOSE or FUNCTION (telos), which it is their natural tendency to fulfill. Activity: p.120 Activity: p.120 Human beings are part of nature. Human beings are part of nature.

11. What is a distinctively human function? Possible candidates: Possible candidates: Activity, p.124 ‘There remains, then, a practical life of the rational part…[a] life determined by activity’ (activity governed by reason) ‘There remains, then, a practical life of the rational part…[a] life determined by activity’ (activity governed by reason) See chart, p.126 See chart, p.126

12. Eudaimonia: Aristotle defines as: Aristotle defines as: ‘…an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue (or if there are more than one kinds of virtue, in accordance with the best and most perfect kind.’

13. Aristotle’s view of the human ‘soul’: Develops Plato’s conception of the human soul. Develops Plato’s conception of the human soul. See Bk One of Nicomachean Ethics – draw a diagram of Aristotle’s conception of the human soul. See Bk One of Nicomachean Ethics – draw a diagram of Aristotle’s conception of the human soul.

14. Eudaimonia Living the ‘Good Life’ Living the ‘Good Life’ More permanent than an emotional state More permanent than an emotional state Life is experienced as ‘going well’ Life is experienced as ‘going well’ More like flourishing in all relevant areas of our lives More like flourishing in all relevant areas of our lives A ‘by-product of how we live’ - can’t be sought directly, but only through activity governed by reason. A ‘by-product of how we live’ - can’t be sought directly, but only through activity governed by reason. Requires external goods (security, health, material sufficiency, friendship, etc.) Requires external goods (security, health, material sufficiency, friendship, etc.)

15. Elements of Eudaimonia: Pleasure: friendships, family relationships Pleasure: friendships, family relationships Honour: participation in governance of one’s community (crucial, if the community is to enable virtuous living!) Honour: participation in governance of one’s community (crucial, if the community is to enable virtuous living!) Contemplation: the pursuit of wisdom, in its many forms! (see ‘Intellectual Virtues’) Contemplation: the pursuit of wisdom, in its many forms! (see ‘Intellectual Virtues’)

16. Questions: What do you think makes us ‘flourish’? What do you think makes us ‘flourish’? Do you agree with Aristotle about the importance of balance in life? Are there times when it is right not to be balanced? Do you agree with Aristotle about the importance of balance in life? Are there times when it is right not to be balanced? do we need particular qualities, or need to practise certain activities? do we need particular qualities, or need to practise certain activities? Has the nature of living well changed over time? If so, is there anything that has remained the same? Has the nature of living well changed over time? If so, is there anything that has remained the same? Is flourishing inherently social (could you flourish and live entirely alone)? Is flourishing inherently social (could you flourish and live entirely alone)?

17. VIRTUE ETHICS 2: What do Aristotle’s virtues mean in practice? Learning today: To be able to explain why Aristotle chose his virtues. To be able to evaluate Aristotle’s picture of a ‘virtuous’ individual.

18. Virtue Ethics To live well, one needs a good character To live well, one needs a good character Character is made up of qualities – ‘excellences’ = virtues (qualities which are required for the practice of the three elements of eudaimonia) Character is made up of qualities – ‘excellences’ = virtues (qualities which are required for the practice of the three elements of eudaimonia) Virtuous human beings are balanced - they have ‘a healthy mind in a healthy body’ Virtuous human beings are balanced - they have ‘a healthy mind in a healthy body’

19. Virtue a good person has virtues and lacks vices a good person has virtues and lacks vices Virtues are found as the ‘mean’ between extreme character traits Virtues are found as the ‘mean’ between extreme character traits.

20. The ‘Golden Mean’ Aristotle uses the analogy of an archer. Aristotle uses the analogy of an archer. Our aim in life is to always ‘hit the target’ – exactly the right balance. Our aim in life is to always ‘hit the target’ – exactly the right balance. By choosing a moderate course of action. By choosing a moderate course of action.

21. Aristotle’s virtues: Aristotle identified 5 intellectual virtues that are associated with the rational soul Aristotle identified 5 intellectual virtues that are associated with the rational soul 12 moral virtues that are associated with the emotional or spiritual part of the soul 12 moral virtues that are associated with the emotional or spiritual part of the soul And 3 bodily virtues which are associated with the appetitive soul And 3 bodily virtues which are associated with the appetitive soul

22. Do you agree that we need intellectual, emotional and physical virtues? Are there any areas of life that are left out here? Do you agree that we need intellectual, emotional and physical virtues? Are there any areas of life that are left out here? What would you choose as intellectual, emotional, and physical virtues? What would you choose as intellectual, emotional, and physical virtues?

23. The bodily virtues (health, strength, looks) are developed through exercise The bodily virtues (health, strength, looks) are developed through exercise The intellectual virtues through education The intellectual virtues through education

24. Intellectual virtues: Creativity - artistry, skill Creativity - artistry, skill Intuition – understanding first principles Intuition – understanding first principles Scientific understanding - how first principles work out practically Scientific understanding - how first principles work out practically Wisdom – understanding what is valuable Wisdom – understanding what is valuable Practical wisdom – understanding how to put wisdom into practice Practical wisdom – understanding how to put wisdom into practice

25. REASON: Distinctive human quality Distinctive human quality Needed to be fully human Needed to be fully human It includes a moral sense It includes a moral sense Ethics is reason put into practice Ethics is reason put into practice

26. Prudence: Or ‘practical wisdom’ Or ‘practical wisdom’ A way of thinking morally A way of thinking morally Involves deliberation and action Involves deliberation and action Uses knowledge gained from experience Uses knowledge gained from experience

27. Prudence (practical wisdom): When having to make a moral decision, Aristotle argues that we cannot simply rely on rules, since all situations are different. When having to make a moral decision, Aristotle argues that we cannot simply rely on rules, since all situations are different. Prudence is the wisdom of knowing how to act which we have accumulated through experience. Prudence is the wisdom of knowing how to act which we have accumulated through experience. Only prudence can help us to weigh up all the unique elements of a situation in order to act with the optimal blend of all our virtues Only prudence can help us to weigh up all the unique elements of a situation in order to act with the optimal blend of all our virtues

28. Moral Virtues: ‘Moral’ (emotional) virtues are rooted in our desires, which must be directed towards the right things, at the right times, and in the right contexts. ‘Moral’ (emotional) virtues are rooted in our desires, which must be directed towards the right things, at the right times, and in the right contexts.

29. Aristotle’s ‘moral’ virtues: Cowardice Miserliness Sloth Humility Secrecy Moroseness Quarrelsomeness Self-indulgence Apathy Indecisiveness Foolhardiness Extravagance Greed Pride Indiscretion Clownishness Flattery Miserableness Irritability Impulsiveness

30. Aristotle’s virtues: Cowardice Miserliness Sloth Humility Secrecy Moroseness Quarrelsomeness Self-indulgence Apathy Indecisiveness Courage Generosity Ambition Modesty Honesty Good humour Friendship Temperance Composure Self-control Foolhardiness Extravagance Greed Pride Indiscretion Clownishness Flattery Miserableness Irritability Impulsiveness

31. We need all the virtues – not just to specialise in a few. Otherwise we become lop-sided…

32. The Cardinal Virtues The main virtues described by Plato and Aristotle are known as the cardinal virtues The main virtues described by Plato and Aristotle are known as the cardinal virtues These are wisdom, courage, temperance and justice These are wisdom, courage, temperance and justice

33. A virtuous state of the soul = “a settled state of choice, in a mean relative to us, this being determined by reason, as the wise man determines it.” “a settled state of choice, in a mean relative to us, this being determined by reason, as the wise man determines it.”

34. Do you think we are born with Aristotle’s virtues? If not, how do we attain them? Do you think we are born with Aristotle’s virtues? If not, how do we attain them?

35. How do we become ‘morally’ virtuous? ‘The moral virtues are engendered in us neither by nor contrary to nature; we are constituted by nature to receive them, but their full development in us is due to habit.’ ‘The moral virtues are engendered in us neither by nor contrary to nature; we are constituted by nature to receive them, but their full development in us is due to habit.’ “Good habits formed in youth make all the difference.”

36. How do we become ‘morally’ virtuous? “Moral excellence comes about as a result of habit. We become just by doing just acts, moderate by doing moderate acts, brave by doing brave acts.” Copying role- models is a key way of developing virtues!

37. Character virtue is learned through repetition or habit (Hexis) Character virtue is learned through repetition or habit (Hexis) ‘Practice makes perfect’ ‘Practice makes perfect’ Each virtue relies on the others Each virtue relies on the others ‘One swallow doesn’t make a summer’ ‘One swallow doesn’t make a summer’

38. Facing moral dilemmas… We should ‘feel or act towards the right person to the right extent at the right time for the right reason in the right way…’ We should ‘feel or act towards the right person to the right extent at the right time for the right reason in the right way…’ ‘…that is not easy and it is not everyone that can do it. Hence to do these things well is a rare, laudable and fine achievement.’ ‘…that is not easy and it is not everyone that can do it. Hence to do these things well is a rare, laudable and fine achievement.’

39. VE & moral dilemmas How would a Virtue Ethicist approach the dilemmas on p.133? How would a Virtue Ethicist approach the dilemmas on p.133? Can you see any weaknesses with VE that arise from this approach? Can you see any weaknesses with VE that arise from this approach?

40. Friendship (and ‘morality’): Aristotle argues that friendship is a key element of eudaimonia Aristotle argues that friendship is a key element of eudaimonia We appreciate goodness in others, as well as ourselves. The more virtuous someone is, the more we admire them. We appreciate goodness in others, as well as ourselves. The more virtuous someone is, the more we admire them.

41. Friendship and impartiality: If friendship is a key element of eudaimonia, Aristotle argues that this means that it is not practical or desirable that we aim for complete impartiality in making moral decisions. If friendship is a key element of eudaimonia, Aristotle argues that this means that it is not practical or desirable that we aim for complete impartiality in making moral decisions. It is fair and right, according to Aristotle, that we prefer our friends to others – as long as this is within the bounds of justice (proportionality). It is fair and right, according to Aristotle, that we prefer our friends to others – as long as this is within the bounds of justice (proportionality).

42. Virtue and community Friendship (of less intense kinds) is the basis of a good community, which enables us to live virtuously. Human beings are social creatures. We are not like isolated atoms, each pursuing our own good, disregarding others. Otherwise, at best, chaos, at worst…

43. Virtue and community:

44. Virtue and community You can only be virtuous if you live in a virtuous community, where your efforts at virtue are supported by everyone else – and vice versa.

45. To ‘live well' as part of a society a person needs virtues which are socially-oriented. To ‘live well' as part of a society a person needs virtues which are socially-oriented. A society that embodies the virtues encourages the development of good citizens. A society that embodies the virtues encourages the development of good citizens. community’s ‘rights’ would usually come before those of the individual (in theory, there should be no clash, since individual’s interests are served only by being part of their community). community’s ‘rights’ would usually come before those of the individual (in theory, there should be no clash, since individual’s interests are served only by being part of their community).

46. Friendship and community: Therefore, Aristotle argues, it is just and right to make preferential choices for your own community to another (within the bounds of justice and virtue). Therefore, Aristotle argues, it is just and right to make preferential choices for your own community to another (within the bounds of justice and virtue).

47. Do you agree that we cannot live well without a supportive and virtuous community? Do you agree that we cannot live well without a supportive and virtuous community? What would you describe as important social virtues? What would you describe as important social virtues? If yes to 1) above, should your community’s rights always come before your own? Are there any limits to what your community can ask of you? If yes to 1) above, should your community’s rights always come before your own? Are there any limits to what your community can ask of you? - Christian B&B owners.

48. An anachronistic interlude… Bankers’ Bonuses Bankers’ Bonuses What are the differences between the approaches of Kantian, Utilitarian and Virtue Ethics to this ethical problem? What are the differences between the approaches of Kantian, Utilitarian and Virtue Ethics to this ethical problem? Which do you agree with most, and why? Which do you agree with most, and why?

49. highlight the key differences between VE’s approach and that of other moral systems; highlight the key differences between VE’s approach and that of other moral systems; based on Aristotle’s own list of virtues, explain whether you think he would respond to your dilemma; based on Aristotle’s own list of virtues, explain whether you think he would respond to your dilemma; explain which ethical approach you see as most adequate to the dilemma. explain which ethical approach you see as most adequate to the dilemma.

50. Differences from other theories: begins with character – rules derive from this, not from reason alone; begins with character – rules derive from this, not from reason alone; different conception of goal of human life (eudaimonia vs. happiness); different conception of goal of human life (eudaimonia vs. happiness); doesn’t require impartiality; doesn’t require impartiality; is self-interested (even though it considers the issue of community a vital one) is self-interested (even though it considers the issue of community a vital one) Community is (nearly always) arbiter of virtue, not the individual Community is (nearly always) arbiter of virtue, not the individual

51. Criticism: lack of impartiality Is Aristotle right to argue that genuine impartiality is not desirable in ethical decision-making? Is Aristotle right to argue that genuine impartiality is not desirable in ethical decision-making? What might count for and against such a claim? What might count for and against such a claim? How does VE compare with other ethical theories on this issue? How does VE compare with other ethical theories on this issue?

52. Criticism: Who decides what ‘a good life’ is? Elements of Eudaimonia: Elements of Eudaimonia: - Pleasure: friendships, family relationships, enjoyment of sport, art, music, food, sex and drink (in moderation) - Honour: participation in governance of one’s community (crucial, if the community is to enable virtuous living!) - Contemplation: the pursuit of wisdom, in its many forms! (see ‘Intellectual Virtues’)

53. The ‘great-souled man’: Aristotle's ideal was the ‘great-souled man’. He is rational, balanced, and independent. His chosen end is to live in a way that demonstrates the highest human quality, rationality. Aristotle's ideal was the ‘great-souled man’. He is rational, balanced, and independent. His chosen end is to live in a way that demonstrates the highest human quality, rationality. The highest activity for such a man is contemplation of truths that are timeless – in this activity, human beings most nearly approached divine blessedness. The highest activity for such a man is contemplation of truths that are timeless – in this activity, human beings most nearly approached divine blessedness. continuous, pleasant, self sufficient, and complete. continuous, pleasant, self sufficient, and complete. all of the ‘moral’ virtues support this end. all of the ‘moral’ virtues support this end.

54. Contemplation (Philosophy) The highest form of moral activity The highest form of moral activity It contemplates timeless truths It contemplates timeless truths And helps to realise the virtues And helps to realise the virtues The ‘great-souled man’ is rational, balanced and independent The ‘great-souled man’ is rational, balanced and independent

55. Mmm… “[Great-souled men] tend to move slowly and speak with a deep steady voice, rather than being hasty or shrill which would be due to anxiety.” “They are not apt to complain about necessities or small matters, nor to ask for help, not wanting to imply that such things are important to them.” “They are not given to wonder, for nothing seems great to them.”

56. Do you agree with Aristotle that contemplation of truth is one of, if not the, highest good for human beings? Do you agree with Aristotle that contemplation of truth is one of, if not the, highest good for human beings? Do you agree with Aristotle’s picture of the ‘great-souled man’? Is there anything that Aristotle might be missing? Do you agree with Aristotle’s picture of the ‘great-souled man’? Is there anything that Aristotle might be missing?

57. Comparison: Apartheid South Africa Apartheid South Africa To be virtuous was to uphold the law To be virtuous was to uphold the law Law discriminated between Blacks and Whites Law discriminated between Blacks and Whites Eudaimonia believed to be a result of a society which discriminates. Eudaimonia believed to be a result of a society which discriminates.

58. Issues: Who decides a community’s virtues? Who decides a community’s virtues? How are these virtues decided? How are these virtues decided? Problem of circularity: Problem of circularity: - if only ‘the virtuous’ know what is virtuous, then how can others ever tell if they’re wrong? - reduces possibility of social change if it’s perceived that ‘the virtuous’ govern - but does Aristotle’s theory rule out discussion amongst the virtuous?

59. Issues, cont. Associated problem of relativity: Associated problem of relativity: - if we can’t judge virtue-values from within a community, neither can we judge the virtue-values of another community, since we have not shared that form of life – maybe, for their circumstances, different patterns of virtue are appropriate? - no overarching, objective standard to judge moral values across cultures.

60. Other historical views of virtue: ‘Homeric’ Virtue Courage Honour Large pectorals

61. Challenges to traditional VE: The Reformation and Individualism (Roman Catholic) Christian Natural Law sits side by side with Virtue Ethics up to Reformation. (Roman Catholic) Christian Natural Law sits side by side with Virtue Ethics up to Reformation. Reformation (1517-1648): traditional society begins to break up – birth of ‘individual’, individual freedoms, and RIGHTS! Reformation (1517-1648): traditional society begins to break up – birth of ‘individual’, individual freedoms, and RIGHTS! Conflicts between individual and political/religious authority – Thirty Years War between Catholics and Protestants. Conflicts between individual and political/religious authority – Thirty Years War between Catholics and Protestants.

62. Rival virtues: Catholicism: Faith, hope and charity Faith, hope and charity Obedience to authority of the Church Obedience to authority of the Church Attendance of Mass and other sacraments (confession, etc.) Attendance of Mass and other sacraments (confession, etc.) Protestantism: Faith, hope and charity Obedience to conscience Reading of scripture and personal prayer What effect might the emergence of these rival virtues have on the idea that human beings have a set nature and a set list of virtues?

63. This is exacerbated by… ‘Disenchantment’ of nature by modern science ‘Disenchantment’ of nature by modern science No necessary Final Cause – modern science focuses on how, not why. No necessary Final Cause – modern science focuses on how, not why. Challenges to belief that universe is created by God – no necessary ‘purpose’ or ‘plan’ for human beings to fulfil Challenges to belief that universe is created by God – no necessary ‘purpose’ or ‘plan’ for human beings to fulfil

66. Therefore no single ‘nature’ to fulfil. Do all human beings share one nature? Therefore no single ‘nature’ to fulfil. Do all human beings share one nature? Amplified by moral relativism which has developed with increased historical and anthropological knowledge. Amplified by moral relativism which has developed with increased historical and anthropological knowledge.

67. different visions of our ‘telos’ are put forward by philosophers: different visions of our ‘telos’ are put forward by philosophers: - to conform to our rational nature (Kant) - to conform to our rational nature (Kant) - to seek pleasure (Utilitarians) - to seek pleasure (Utilitarians) Combined with individual freedom, this results in… Combined with individual freedom, this results in…

70. ‘Courtly’ virtues: Politeness, gentlemanliness, ladylikeness

71. ‘Romantic’ virtues: Creativity, passion, genius, death…

72. …a change to the focus of ethics: From 17th century onwards, ethical theory increasingly focuses on conflicts between individuals who have rights, rather than an individual’s qualities as part of society; From 17th century onwards, ethical theory increasingly focuses on conflicts between individuals who have rights, rather than an individual’s qualities as part of society; Focus is on ‘right’ and ‘wrong’, rather than ‘good’, on rules and laws – natural law, deontology, utilitarianism; Focus is on ‘right’ and ‘wrong’, rather than ‘good’, on rules and laws – natural law, deontology, utilitarianism; Source of moral values becomes more internalised (self - reason or feeling - rather than stable position in a world which has a clear order). Source of moral values becomes more internalised (self - reason or feeling - rather than stable position in a world which has a clear order).

73. Virtue revisited: Alasdair MacIntyre (b.1929) Argues that increasing awareness of ethical alternatives about how to live a good life and an accompanying moral scepticism (e.g. different theories of rights and utility) have left our moral life fragmented – to point where individualism has replaced any sense of a common good. Argues that increasing awareness of ethical alternatives about how to live a good life and an accompanying moral scepticism (e.g. different theories of rights and utility) have left our moral life fragmented – to point where individualism has replaced any sense of a common good. We need to recover a sense of telos, as individuals and as a society We need to recover a sense of telos, as individuals and as a society

74. Making Virtue Ethics from scratch for today: What would modern versions of the following look like? What would modern versions of the following look like? i) Telos ii) Human nature iii) Virtues How will living according to democratic values affect how these are lived out?

75. MacIntyre: Aware that maintaining a ‘metaphysical’ telos like Aristotle’s is theoretically problematic, and also critiques Aristotle’s valuation of ‘self-sufficient superiority’ Aware that maintaining a ‘metaphysical’ telos like Aristotle’s is theoretically problematic, and also critiques Aristotle’s valuation of ‘self-sufficient superiority’ Argues that our telos (given by our biological nature as ‘dependent rational animals’) is practical reasoning, which can lead us to develop ways of flourishing in our communities. Argues that our telos (given by our biological nature as ‘dependent rational animals’) is practical reasoning, which can lead us to develop ways of flourishing in our communities. Views similar virtues to those of Aristotle as still required: practical wisdom, honesty, courage, justice, generosity, etc. – but these must be available to all (not just an elite) – and places more value on our relationships with others. Views similar virtues to those of Aristotle as still required: practical wisdom, honesty, courage, justice, generosity, etc. – but these must be available to all (not just an elite) – and places more value on our relationships with others.

76. Ancient vs. Modern VE (1): Aristotle assumes teleology; modern VE theorists are either teleological themselves (MacIntyre), or simply naturalistic: what is good is what people desire (= happiness) and what leads to this goal. Aristotle assumes teleology; modern VE theorists are either teleological themselves (MacIntyre), or simply naturalistic: what is good is what people desire (= happiness) and what leads to this goal. Aristotle assumes that virtue is restricted to a small group – Athenian males. Modern VE theorists argue that virtue is accessible across a much broader range of human beings (though possibly not to all human beings, such as those who are severely mentally disabled). Aristotle assumes that virtue is restricted to a small group – Athenian males. Modern VE theorists argue that virtue is accessible across a much broader range of human beings (though possibly not to all human beings, such as those who are severely mentally disabled).

77. Ancient vs. Modern VE (2) Aristotle has a relatively narrow view of human nature; modern VE theorists acknowledge that human beings can flourish in many different ways (which may result in different weighting of virtues – cf. MacIntyre’s very open notion of the ‘good life’) – though certain key virtues must still be present to enable true flourishing. Aristotle has a relatively narrow view of human nature; modern VE theorists acknowledge that human beings can flourish in many different ways (which may result in different weighting of virtues – cf. MacIntyre’s very open notion of the ‘good life’) – though certain key virtues must still be present to enable true flourishing. Many modern VE theorists are influenced by Christianity’s emphasis on compassion as a valuable virtue. Many modern VE theorists are influenced by Christianity’s emphasis on compassion as a valuable virtue.

78. Remaining issues: Do modern VE theories resolve all the weaknesses of Aristotle’s theory? Do modern VE theories resolve all the weaknesses of Aristotle’s theory? Is moral life a matter of ‘art’ rather than ‘science’, as Aristotle claims – a matter of constant evolution through debate, or a matter that can be theoretically pinned down (as per rule-based theories)? Is moral life a matter of ‘art’ rather than ‘science’, as Aristotle claims – a matter of constant evolution through debate, or a matter that can be theoretically pinned down (as per rule-based theories)?

79. Homework: In what ways do Aristotle’s ethics differ from deontological and utilitarian approaches? In what ways do Aristotle’s ethics differ from deontological and utilitarian approaches? What are the advantages and disadvantages of Aristotle’s means of decision-making on the one hand, and procedural ethics on the other? What are the advantages and disadvantages of Aristotle’s means of decision-making on the one hand, and procedural ethics on the other?