1. Bilingualism and Multilingualism LIN 1300 Study notes

2. A monolingual view of bilingualism is that humans are only programmed to learn one language We aren’t programmed to learn one or two languages, we are primed to learn language in general Bilingualism has a positive effect on our ability to learn language in general and cognitive abilities True for bilinguals of all ages Bilingualism by definition requires the regular use of at least 2 languages Need to use two languages regularly in their life to maintain it, not just when travelling etc.

3. Bilinguals and multi-linguals have skills such as improved: – Metalinguistic awareness – Learning strategies and communication strategies – Linguistic information processing skills – Speech perception

4. Bi and multi-linguals are better on reflecting on the structure of language and language processing Helps make the acquisition easier Have better learning strategies Have better communication strategies Better ability to process linguistic information, and faster at decoding information Try to learn an “artificial” language, with “words” that form “sentences” Observed in study how they processed the structure of the fake language Implicit- not told what to do (here is a language) Explicit- told what to do (here’s a language, read it) Monolinguals and bilinguals are better at perceiving sound contrasts

5. Bilingualism and multilingualism have positive effects on various cognitive abilities which help with the acquisition of additional languages The effect of bilingualism and multilingualism is much broader – Cognitive development and general cognitive abilities – Aging of the brain

6. Executive function – Regulates and controls cognitive abilities and behaviours e.g. – Attention – Memory – Motor abilities – Impulsions (inhibition of inappropriate behaviours) Verbal and motor – Planning and organising ideas when doing a task Bilinguals and multi-linguals have improved executive function

7. A deficit in terms of the executive function can cause difficulties with accomplishing tasks that require: – Divided attention – Change of strategy Reorganisation of concepts/ideas in a different way – Good working memory – Motor control in response to stimuli Working memory- short term memory

8. Disorders All of these disorders display problems in the executive function: – Attention-deficit(hyperactivity) Disorder – AD(H)D – Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – OCD – Tourette Syndrome – Depression – Bipolar disorder – Schizophrenia

9. Components of the executive function – Cognitive flexibility: The ability to nimbly adjust to changed demands or priorities, being able to change perspectives Studies have shown that bilingual children show more cognitive flexibility than monolingual children – Inhibitory control: Resisting a strong inclination to do one thing in order to do what is most appropriate or needed Ex. completing a task despite wanting to go out and play exercising focused, selective attention despite distraction saying what is polite rather than something socially inappropriate or hurtful – Working memory: Holding information in mind and working with it Ex. manipulating ideas mentally doing mental math calculations relating what you are learning or reading right now to what you learned or read earlier

10. Cognitive flexibility: “Switch task” Switch test Classify the cards based on one characteristic like color, shape In which box are you going to put the cards in asked Match color with color box Match shape with shape box afterwards First classification task is easy Difficulty when asked to change the rule for the second classification task Monolingual preschool children until the age of five cannot switch their strategies Effect of bilingualism – Bilingual children are able to do the second classification talk earlier than monolingual children – Enhanced cognitive flexibility thanks to their experience with switching between 2 different languages

11. Inhibitory control: tests Various tasks have demonstrated that bilinguals have better inhibitory control than monolinguals – Children Tower task, switch task – Adults Stroop task Results – Better performance by bilinguals than by monolinguals Children adults Conclusion – Bilinguals are better at focussing when there is a distraction (misleading information) – Bilinguals regularly rely on inhibitory control to control the activation of their 2 languages

12. In children: tower task Build a tower with Lego and Duplo blocks Lego is much smaller than Duplo 1 block= one family Task: determine what tower can hold the largest amount of families Obviously a Lego tower will be able to hold more families What’s hard for the children- not deducing that a larger tower equals more families; they are distracted by the height and the play of building a tower Bilingual children are better at distinguishing this

13. In adults: Stroop task Saying color names while the word is presented in text of a different color purposely to through off the test subject Ex. Yellow

14. Working memory: verbal and non- verbal tests Verbal – Digit span task Sequences of numbers are presented They must be held in working memory and repeated Numbers are shown, you have to replicate them by typing them on the keyboard Each time you get a list right, the next list is one number longer Each time you fail, the list is one number shorter You can only fail 3 times Non-verbal – Spatial Span Sequences of squares light up The order must be remembered and repeated – Better performance by bilinguals than by monolinguals – Bilinguals have better working memory

15. Bilingualism impact on executive function Summary – Bilingualism has a major impact on cognitive processes – The effects are positive – The effects are observed At all ages (children, adults) On various components

16. Aging of the brain Bilinguism seems to offer a certain protection against the aging of the brain As people get older, they have less functional executive functions The brain becomes damaged and less functional in diseases like Alzheimer's, dementia etc. Observations – Physiological changes Degeneration of brain cells Accumulation of amyloids Effects – Decline in cognitive abilities Executive function – Brain pathologies E.g. dementia, Alzheimer’s disease

17. Cognitive reserve The ability of an individual to tolerate progressive brain pathology without demonstrating clinical cognitive symptoms The cognitive reserve is what determines the severity of the symptoms for a given pathology How much we have of this determines the amount of damage Ex. if you have a lot of cognitive reserve, you will have less damage from aging The more cognitive reserve you have, the less symptoms of aging you have. The less cognitive reserve you have, the more symptoms you will have etc.

18. Factors which seem to contribute to cognitive reserve – Education – Active lifestyle Social Mental Physical

19. Bilingualism plays a role in cognitive reserve Being bilingual is cognitively demanding  Contributes to the cognitive reserve  Compensates for the effects aging has on the brain – Better executive function – Delays the diagnostic and onset of symptoms for brain pathologies such as dementia and Alzheimer’s disease 3-5 years

20. Summary – Bilingualism and multilingualism offer several cognitive advantages Language acquisition Cognitive development in children General cognitive abilities across the life span Fights against the aging of the brain