1. Paper 2 revision session 4 Explaining psychopathological disorders (OCD, depression, phobias)

2. Take an A3 piece of paper and draw this on it… Explaining psychopathological disorders.

3. Rate yourself On a scale of 1-10 how well do you think you can explain… 1.behavioural approach to explaining phobias 2.The cognitive approach to explaining depression 3.The biological approach to explaining OCD

4. Phobias

5. The Behavioural Approach Phobias are learnt through our environment! All behaviour is learned whether it is normal or abnormal. Some behaviours that are learned can be adaptive and help people lead a happy life, some can be maladaptive and therefore undesirable. The emphasis of the behavioural approach is that phobias are caused through the environment, through the process of classical conditioning; operant conditioning and social learning theory. This approach ignores the role of biology or any internal thoughts or feelings. Phobias develop / remain in 3 ways: Classical conditioning – behaviour is learnt through association Operant conditioning – behaviour is learnt through reinforcement Social learning theory – learning through observation

6. The Behavioural Approach Hobart Mowrer (1960) proposed the two-process model based on the behaviourist approach to phobias. This model states that:  The acquisition (onset) of phobias is seen as occurring directly through classical conditioning, for example, by the experience of a traumatic event, like being bitten by a dog; or indirectly though social learning theory, for example through observing or hearing about a fearful event happening to another, like seeing someone else being bitten by a dog.  The maintenance of phobias is seen as occurring through operant conditioning, where avoiding or escaping from a feared object/situation acts as a negative reinforcer (the reward being the reduction of anxiety). This reinforces the avoidance response (makes it more likely to occur again).

7. Classical Conditioning A01 ‘Little Albert’ StimulusResponse Before conditioningUnconditioned stimulus (UCS)Unconditioned response (UCR) ExampleLoud noiseFear During conditioningConditioned stimulus (CS) + Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) UCR ExampleNS – white rat + Loud noise Fear After conditioningCSConditioned response ExampleWhite ratFear

8. SLT & phobias Phobias can also be explained using SLT SLT sees behaviour as learned by modelling through observation and imitation. Watching someone experience a traumatic event can cause the observer to experience the fear response in the presence of the same stimulus. For example, seeing someone else being bitten by a dog could cause the observer to develop a phobia of dogs.

9. Adam has a fear of dogs. As a child he was once bitten by a dog belonging to a family friend. Now when he thinks about dogs he experiences high anxiety and he becomes very afraid whenever he sees a dog close up. This is particularly bad when he is approached by a German Shepherds. Adam avoids dogs whenever possible. Using the two-process model (acquired by CC & continue due to OC). Explain how Adam might have acquired his phobia and how it might be maintained. Refer to the process of CC & OC in your answer. (6 marks)

10. Before Adam was bitten by the dog, he would have showed no anxiety towards dogs. Before the event the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) would be being bitten by the dog, the unconditioned response (UCR) would be fear. When the dog (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (being bitten) are encountered close together in time the NS (dog) Becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that produces a conditioned response (being bitten). This means that Adam has associated the dog with being bitten, causing him to have a phobia of dogs. Adam’s phobia has been maintained by operant conditioning. Adam will avoid dogs wherever possible, this is explained by negative reinforcement as he is avoiding an unpleasant situation. In terms of positive reinforcement.

11. The cognitive approach to explaining depression… Cognitive approach explains depression in terms of a person’s cognitions (i.e the way they think) The cognitive approach to explaining depression including Beck’s negative triad and Ellis’s ABC model.

12. Beck’s cognitive theory of depression 1.Faulty processing – focusing on the negative 2.Negative self-schemas leads to interpretation of information of ourselves in a negative way. 3.The negative triad (world, future, self)

13. Beck’s negative triad Beck (1987) believes people become depressed because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas. Negative schemas, together with cognitive biases/distortions, maintain the negative triad which sees negative thoughts being about… Apply the negative triad to explaining depression, how does it actually cause depression? Have a go in pairs.

14. Beck’s negative triad “people become depressed because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in the negative schemas that have been learned. These negative schemas then continue into adulthood, providing a negative framework to view life in a pessimistic (negative) way.”

16. Albert ELLIS Explains depressive/irrational thinking using the ABC model. What does ABC stand for? Activating event triggers … Beliefs which are irrational; this produces … Consequences – an emotional response. It is the IRRATIONAL BELIEFS which trigger the response, not the event itself.

17. It is not the event but the irrational belief that triggers depression. Activating event triggers … Beliefs which are irrational; this produces … Consequences – an emotional response. A Liz declines Jez’s offer of a second date. B Jez believes – I am worthless. – I will never succeed with anyone. – I am a total failure. C Depression Using the ABC model… how would you explain depression? Again work in pairs if you need to.

18. Ellis “Outline each part of the A B C model…The activating event triggers an emotion that is seen as true and the consequence is that the individual becomes depressed because they have a negative view about themselves and no confidence in their ability. People who don’t have depression may react completely differently, for example if something happens in the environment they may be more motivated to do better or to think rationally about the behaviour”

21. OCD

22. What do you need to know? Genetic explanations – genes Neural – serotonin & decision making systems

23. Genetic explanations This explanation focuses on OCD being inherited by genetic transmission How can we study this? Twin studies! There is a genetic link to OCD – some individuals are more vulnerable to developing the disorder than others. Unlikely that genes are the sole cause – combination of genes that determine an individual’s vulnerability to the condition. This is genetic vulnerability NOT certainty

24. Neural explanations The role of serotonin Neurotransmitter which regulates everything from mood, anxiety, to memory, to sleep Neurotransmitters relay information from one neuron to the other. If a person has low levels of serotonin then normal transmission of mood-relevant information doesn’t take place Therefore mood and other mental processes are affected At least some cases can be explained through this Medications such as SSRIs which increase serotonin are used to treat OCD – supporting that this could be the cause.

25. OCD can be associated with impaired decision making This may be associated with abnormal functioning of the frontal lobes of the brain Frontal lobes are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions Left parahippocampal gyrus which is associated with unpleasant emotions, functions abnormally OCD. OCD can be associated with impaired decision making This may be associated with abnormal functioning of the frontal lobes of the brain Frontal lobes are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions Left parahippocampal gyrus which is associated with unpleasant emotions, functions abnormally OCD. NEURAL EXPLANATIONS ABNORMAL BRAIN FUNCTIONING

26. Neural explanations abnormal brain functioning Lateral frontal lobes Parahippocampal gyrus

29. OCD Application Question Just after his tenth birthday, Josh developed a nasty throat infection and a few weeks later he started to have persistent thoughts about being infected by germs, which caused him a lot of anxiety. He began repetitively washing his hands many times a day. He was diagnosed as suffering from OCD, a condition several members of his family have had. However, since he has begun taking medication that increases the level of serotonin in his brain, his symptoms have decreased. Referring to the situation above, show how genetic and neural explanations may account for Josh’s OCD (4 marks)

30. OCD Application Question A genetic explanation for Josh’s OCD could be due to genes. Genetic vulnerability can be passed on through families. Researchers have identified genes, which create vulnerability for OCD called candidate genes. One gene is the 5HT1-D beta which affects the efficiency of serotonin. A neural explanation for Josh’s OCD could be the role of serotonin. OCD gas been said to be caused by low levels of serotonin, which affect mood regulation.