1. The success of political Islam The success of political Islam coincides with the decline of secular Arab nationalism. A number of Islamist thinkers had predicted it would fail because it was based on the import of alien values and ideologies. –When however Arab nationalism is able to deliver material goods and ideological certainty, the criticism of Islamist thinkers can be easily marginalised (Qutb in Egypt or Bennabi in Algeria) The failure of Arab nationalism is policy-motivated rather than ideological. –Political Islam will pick up the ‘flag’ of Arab nationalism on a number of respects: anti-imperialism, the unity of Arabs and the vision of a classless society united around a common purpose.

2. Why so successful? There is no doubt that since 1967 the rise of political Islam in all of its expressions has been the most important political change in the Middle East and North Africa. –The return to ‘authenticity’ of thinking and action in light of the failure of imported ideologies. The legacy of colonialism is still relevant. –Socio-economic factors are also very relevant because Islamic charities begin to fill the void left by the state and expose the deficiencies of current regimes. A society should be governed for the benefit of all of its members –The proximity of Islamist militants to the constituencies they serve and wish to represent. The case of Fatah and Hamas leaders. –Political representatives of the ‘educated and marginalised.’ Vast sectors of the middle-class buy into the Islamist project. Its leaders are doctors, engineers, teachers and university educated men and women.

3. Political Islam – the objective Political Islam ‘provides a comprehensive critique of the existing order, challenges it and aims to change it. It addresses the social, political, economic and cultural challenges faced by contemporary Muslim societies and claims to provide solutions to them’ (Denoeux 2002). –The creation of an Islamic state is the objective of Islamists and through the creation of this state there should be the radical transformation of social, economic, political and cultural relationships. The problem is that different Islamists have different ideas as to what constitutes an Islamic state and go about trying to achieve its creation through very different methods.

4. Islamist Groups – a classification It is quite difficult to proceed to a classification of radical Islamist actors, but there are clusters that can be identified: –Social and political actions coupled with national liberation struggle. –The salafi groups. –The Brothers’ Islamism.

5. Social and Political activism for national liberation There are groups that combine the provision of social services with engagement in the democratic process and with political violence towards the perceived ‘occupier.’ –Hamas and Hiz’bullah are the two classic examples. –The paradox of participation to the democratic game. Lebanon and Palestine more democratic than all surrounding countries. –The legitimacy of the perceived anti-colonial armed struggle.

6. The Salafi Groups They operate both nationally and internationally. Subscribe to the idea of the ‘cosmic struggle.’ Imposition of the Islamic state from above. –The Algerian GIA and Al Qaeda are the classic examples. Muslims who do ‘nothing’ are equally guilty. –Motivated by a wider sense of injustice. This comes straight from Qutb. Injustice is the motivator, not absence of democracy. –The use of violence. The need for religious justification for killing.

7. The Brothers’ Islamism The vast majority of groups belong to this strand. –The Egyptian Brotherhood, the Moroccan PJD and the Syrian Brotherhood are classic examples. Social activism at the roots of their success. –The acceptance of democratic politics. From flirting with violence to benefiting from democratic procedures? –The transformation into catch-all parties. Many social groups are represented and they have diverging interests. Multiple influences as moderating influences.

8. What do they have in common? Two factors holds them together in the radical camp: –They all use religious references to underscore their political objectives. Islam as the only indigenous source that can provide an ideological alternative to western imported models and ideologies. –They all have a revolutionary ethos. The objective is the transformation of society.