1. Issues in the Assessment of ELL Students Julie Esparza Brown, EdD Diagnostic Assessment Portland State University jebrown@pdx.edu

2. ELL Students  Many students live in linguistically isolated areas (in home country or U.S.). In U.S. schools, ELL students are also often linguistically isolated.  They have: Limited exposure to Standard English Limited opportunities to interact with speakers who are proficient in Standard English Limited opportunities to obtain additional help with homework from peers who speak Standard English

3. ELL Students  The majority of them are U.S. born and have received all of their education in American schools  Achieve oral fluency in everyday language but lag in measures of academic success and tasks requiring academic language proficiency

4. Academic Success  Is dependent on: Learning to read well  Which is dependent upon rich language knowledge  In order develop rich language knowledge, ELL students need explicit, systematic English language instruction

7. Language Acquisition Stages Language Acquisition Stages/Stages of Language Development Communication Skills 1. Pre- production, Beginning or Entering Emphasis is on listening comprehension activities designed to teach students to recognize the meaning of words used in communicative contest. Students may respond by:  Performing an act  Pointing to an item or picture  Gesturing or nodding  Saying yes or no  Naming objects or pictures

8. Language Acquisition Stages Language Acquisition Stages/Stages of Language Development Communication Skills 2. Early Production, Early Intermediate or Emerging Students access and produce linguistic units in the following ways:  List of words  Yes/no answers  One words answers from either/or questions  One word answers from general questions  Two word string and short phrases  Simple sentences

9. Language Acquisition Stages Language Acquisition Stages/Stages of Language Development Communication Skills 3. Speech Emergence, Intermediate or Developing Students use a wider range of vocabulary and the sentences they produce become longer and more complex. Students response may include:  Short phrases  Longer phrases  Complete sentences where appropriate since native speech is not always made up of complete sentences  Narration

10. Language Acquisition Stages Language Acquisition Stages/Stages of Language Development Communication Skills 4. Intermediate Fluency, Early Advanced or Expanding The students often know what he/she wants to say but searches for acceptable language patterns.  Makes complex statements  States opinions  Report an event  Gives instructions  Participates in extended discourse

11. Language Acquisition Stages Language Acquisition Stages/Stages of Language Development Communication Skills 5. Advanced Fluency, Advanced or Bridging The student comprehends most conversation and academic discourse but sometimes requires repetition. Meaning is usually clear, but vocabulary and structures are used inappropriately at times. The student reads and writes, with some difficulty, materials that are commensurate with his/her cognitive development but demonstrates some problems in grasping intended meaning.

13. Language Proficiency  The student's level of skill or amount of control in using a particular language.  The ability to “effectively communicate or understand thoughts or ideas through the language’s grammatical system and its vocabulary, using its sounds or written symbols.”

14. Language Proficiency  The characteristics of a person who is proficient in a language include: ability to understand distorted messages ability to create messages knowledge of linguistic rules ease and comfort across a variety of speaking contexts.  Full proficiency in the first language contributes to the development of the second language.  Language proficiency is not a static state but rather a constant state of fluctuation.

15. Primary Language  Language that the student learns first and uses most frequently in the early stages of language development.  It is the language of the home and the one children use to make and establish meaningful communicative relationships with their family members.  The home language is tied to children's culture, and culture and language communicate traditions, values and attitudes.  The determination of primary language is best made through home language surveys and carefully conducted parent interviews.  Loss of a child's home language may result in the disruption of family communication patterns.  Parents should be encouraged to use and develop children's home language.

16. Dominant Language  The language that the student speaks most fluently and chooses to speak when given a choice.  The dominant language can be situational in nature. For example, a child schooled only in English will ultimately become dominant in English academic language.  However, the primary language may remain dominant in other social situations such as church or community events.

17. “Nondominant” Language  It is critical to understand that “nondominant” cannot be equated with unimportant, irrelevant or inconsequential.  Despite English dominance, L1 continues to be important for ELL students.

18. Normal Processes of Second Language Acquisition  A silent period The younger the child, the longer the silent period (Brice, 2002; Hakuta, 1978; Tabors, 1997)  Codeswitching The practice of alternating between two languages within a single phrase, sentence, or discourse This is a common strategy used and is a normal communication behavior

19. Normal Processes of Second Language Acquisition  Transfer Errors are made that reflect the influence of the L1 Errors of transfer from L1 are NOT signs of a communication disorder These errors are an example of difference, and not disability  Language Loss When students’ L1 is not maintained, they experience loss of L1 Loss of L1 can lead to low achievement in both languages

20. Types of Bilingualism  Valdes and Figueroa (1996) identify: Simultaneous versus sequential bilingualism  Sequential bilinguals have been exposed to their L1 since birth and later exposed to L2 (usually when they enter public school). Variability is the hallmark of sequential bilingualism.  Simultaneous bilinguals have been exposed to and learned both languages at the same time. Elective versus circumstantial bilingualism  Elective bilinguals want to acquire a second language.  Circumstantial bilinguals must learn L2 in order to survive and their L1 is not usually a valued language.

21. Two Types of Bilingualism  Simultaneous Occurs when a child is exposed to two languages from infancy in natural situations Interference between L1 and L2 is minimal  Sequential Child is exposed to L1 during infancy and learns L2 at some later point These children may show greater diversity in rates and stages of acquisition (Kayser 2002; Langdon, 1992)

22. Two Types of Language Proficiency  Additive bilingualism Students’ L1 is nurtured and developed along with L2 Studies show that additive bilingualism is a cognitive and linguistic benefit (Baker, 2000; Coltrane, 2003)  Subtractive Students’ L1 is not nurtured or developed It is replaced by L2 Language loss in L1 occurs These students may have academic failure because they are not strong in either L1 or L2

23. Academic Register vs. Social Register  The language register used in academic discourse.  Essential components that require explicit instruction: Vocabulary: all the words that someone knows, learns, or uses Syntax: the way words are arranged to form sentences or phrases Grammar: the rules according to which the words of a language change their form and are combined into sentences

24.  Academic Language “Jared is making a comparison of the impacts of chronic sleep deprivation on teens and adults.”  Comprehensible English “Jared is studying the similarities and differences in the effects of regular sleep loss on teens and adults.”

25. Conversational Skills (BICS) vs. Academic Language (CALP) When a student walks up to a counter to purchase an English-language magazine, she/he uses conversational language skills with the clerk and to make the purchase. On the other hand, in order to read and understand what is in the magazine, as well as discuss the pros and cons of an article, the student needs more advanced language skills. The oral and written language needed to engage in the debate of the article requires advanced and specialized vocabulary, more complex sentence structures, and more complex discourse structures than in conversational language.

26. To Ponder…  The majority of ELL students that educators will generally assess are children who are non-balanced, sequential and circumstantial bilinguals.  These children will have varying degrees of proficiency in both their first language and English.  Why do so many students with this profile get referred????

27. Factors that Foster “Language Loss” in Typical Learners  Early immersion in English preschool programs.  Low status of minority language.  Lack of L1 peer interactions.  Limited contact with L1 speakers outside home.  Diminished use of L1 across domains.  Child’s level of minority L1 development at time majority English is emphasized.  Variable rates and direction of L1 and L2 change negate the use of monolingual norms in either language for the purpose of “ruling in” Communication Disorder.

28. In Young Typically Developing ELLs  The “minority” language is needed: To maintain & promote family connections, cultural links, and the self-identity necessary for positive socioemotional development and well- being.  English is needed: To develop & maintain positive interactions with the majority community to maximize educational and vocational opportunities and success.

30. Discuss  What have you noticed about the level of language use in mainstream classrooms and adaptations that are being made for ELL students?

31. Assessment

32. Implications for Assessment  Because of the variable rates and direction of L1/L2 change means that assessments with monolingual norms in either language for the purpose of “ruling in” a language disorder cannot be used.  If a child can communicate in two languages, it is important to assess their knowledge in each.

33. Implications for Assessment  Students who do not receive L1 support have a weak foundation upon which to build their L2  Most experience academic failure  They may appear to be “language- learning disabled” but in reality they have not had the opportunity to develop strong language foundations in either L1 or L2

34. Implications for Assessment  It will take twice as long to assess the language skills of an ELL student because assessment must be in both languages (Goldstein, 2001).  Remember, the disorder must be evident in the L1  Students with age-appropriate skills in L1 and low scores in English are NOT disabled

35. Informal Language Assessments  Language sampling A child can either be asked to create a story or retell a story  Listen for how a child Organizes the story, is there a general order (remember to account for cultural differences in storytelling; not all cultures are linear sequential) Explains or comments on relevant and irrelevant details of the story Remembers details

36. Informal Language Assessments  Follow Directions Assess a child’s ability to follow directions of increasing length and complexity Make sure the student first understands the vocabulary

37. Informal Language Assessments  Communication Across Settings Observe the child in a variety of natural settings  Classroom  Playground  Home  Community  cafeteria

38. Informal Language Assessments  Language processing capacity Studies show that students with true communication disorders have difficulty retaining sequential order of information (Giliam et al, 1995) Studies also suggest that these students have difficulties on tasks that require verbatim, immediate ordered recall (Fazio, 1998) It is hard for these students to  Recall lists of real words  Recall lists of nonsense words  Repeat digits in sequence

39. Informal Language Assessments  Picture Cards Create simple picture cards where students can label the objects in L1 (and/or L2) Ask the child to point to several pictures in a row from memory Then ask the child to verbally recall the pictures without the cards This way you can see if the child has more difficulty when there are no visual aides

40. Red Flags  As compared to “true” peers: Poor comprehension skills Family history of language disorders or communication disorders History of delayed communication or play development Frequent, recurring and difficult to treat ear infections Difficulties answering questions about facts and inferences from stories read to them

41. Red Flags  Research shows that Spanish- speaking children with language disorders show difficulties in both noun and verb phrases, problems with articles, and prepositions in Spanish.  These should be evaluated in a language assessment in Spanish.

42. Red Flags  Research shows that Spanish- speaking children with language disorders show difficulties using complex verb forms such as subjunctive verbs in English but verb production may be fine (Goldstein, 2004).

43. Ten Critical Questions 1. Are health, developmental or educational risk factors present? 2. Are parents or family members concerned with communication? 3. Are parent-child communicative interactions successful and comparable to those of others of similar ages/backgrounds? 4. Is the child able to communicate various forms and functions with siblings or other cultural and language-matched peers? 5. Is there concern with voice, fluency, hearing, oral motor skills, functional communication, or other “non-language specific” skills?

44. Ten Critical Questions 6. Is the child’s play (with objects or others) comparable to true peers? 7. Does the child seem to be quickly losing L1 and very slowly (as compared to true peers) learning English? 8. Does the child get easily frustrated and/or “shut down” during language tasks? 9. Does the teacher’s concern persist or escalate after a “watch and see” period? 10. Is a teacher experienced with ELL students and the second language acquisition process concerned?

45. Responses to the Ten Critical Questions  If there were many positive responses, initiate a referral for a language assessment.  ELL specialist must be on the decision-making team.

46. Use L1  To prevent a more severe “language gap” because these children are more vulnerable for a quick “loss” of L1 and slow acquisition of L2  More parental involvement needed for ELL students with a language disorder so parent and student need to maintain a common language  Improved L1 competency support English development (Kohnert, 2007)

47. Ortiz, S. (2001). Adapted from Thomas, W. & Collier, V. (1997). Language minority student achievement and program effectiveness. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

50. Resources  Encourage family members to talk, sing, play, and read to the child  Help family locate community resources (library, cultural centers, etc.)  Provide opportunities for L1 use in school  Ask culturally competent speech and language specialist for advice

51. Facilitate Language Development  Allow the child time to listen, process and respond  Supplement spoken language with gestures, actions, models, examples (Total Physical Response) & encourage nonverbal and verbal responses from children  Provide frequent, focused, developmentally appropriate language input to child while engaged in meaning activities

52. Difficult Sounds for ELL Students Spanishb, d, dg, h, j, m, n, ng, r, sh, t, th, v, w, y, z, s-clusters, end clusters Chineseb, ch, d, dg, f, j, l, m, n, ng, long o, sh, th, v, z, l-clusters, r-clusters Vietnameselong a, long e, k, l, ng, p, r, sh, s, y, l-clusters, r-clusters KoreanB, l, lomg o, ow, p, r, sh, t, th, l- clusters, r-clusters

53. Instruction in New Sounds  When students are receiving beginning reading instruction in a second language, they may need to learn phonemes that do not exist in their L1.  Explicit instruction must be used to teach these sounds.

54. Literacy Instruction  Instruction must include explicit skill instruction AND explicit, systematic oral language development  If oral language development is not attended to, ELL students have difficulty being successful

55. Critical Components of Literacy Instruction for ELLs  High quality, explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and decoding  Rich vocabulary development  Comprehension instruction using explicit and interaction teaching during all phases of reading  Structured opportunities for oral language development with a strong emphasis on daily oral language activities (Gentile, 2004)  Awareness of a student’s literacy skills in L1 will enhance their L2 development

56. Vocabulary Instruction  Studies show that vocabulary instruction for students with a language disorder must: Employ direct teaching of vocabulary Explicit teaching of word meaning within the context of a shared story Read books aloud several times to children and combine the reading with an explanation of 8 – 10 new vocabulary words.

57. Legislative and Judicial Mandates for ELL Students and Special Education  Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and its regulations at 34 CFR Part 100  May 25, 1970 Memorandum  Section 504  Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 42 USC 12131-12161  Individuals with Disabilities Educational Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004  Lau v. Nichols  Castaneda v Pickard

58. Research Study  Brown (2010) investigated the impact of native language instruction on cognitive development as measured by the Bateria III cognitiva.  Thirty-four third and fourth grade students from a rural school district participated.

59. Research Study  The following scores: General Intellectual Abilities (GIA) Seven broad clusters Fourteen subtests  were compared to the normative scores (mean = 100) for each group: the Native Language Development group (NLD = 16) the English Language Development group (ELD = 18)

61. *p <.05; **p <.01; ***p <.001

64. We must merge our traditional sense of schooling with the real world. What we do in school must not insult the child's past but must build upon his past and encourage future learning. –Sigmund Boloz

65. References Brown, J.E., & Doolittle, J. (2008). A cultural, linguistic, and ecological framework for response to intervention with English language learners. Boulder, CO: National Center for Culturally Relevant Educational Systems. Available for download at http://www.nccrest.org/publications/briefs.html Crockett, D., & Brown, J.E. (2009). Multicultural practices and response to intervention. In J.M. Jones (Ed.), The psychology of multiculturalism in the schools: A primer for practice, training and research. Bethesda, MD: The National Association of School Psychology. Kohnert, K. (2007). Recognizing a language delay/disorder vs. a language difference. Paper presented at the Celebrate Our Rising Stars Summit VI, Washington, DC. Roseberry-McKibbin, C. (2003). Assessment of bilingual learners: Language difference or disorder? Rockville, MD: American Speech- Language Hearing Association.