2. Gaits

3. Cost of Transportation

4. Wheeled Mobile Robots Most popular locomotion mechanism Highly efficient Simple mechanical implementation Balancing is not usually a problem Suspension system needed to allow all wheels to maintain ground contact on uneven terrain

5. Wheeled Mobile Robots Focus is on – Traction – Stability – Maneuverability – Control

6. Wheel Designs a) Standard wheels – 2 DOF b) Castor wheels – 2 DOF

7. Wheel Designs c) Swedish (Omni) wheels – 3 DOF d) Ball or spherical wheel – 3 DOF – Think mouse ball – Suspension issue

8. Wheeled Mobile Robots Stability of a vehicle is guaranteed with 3 wheel – center of gravity is within the triangle formed by ground contact points of wheels Stability is improved by 4 and more wheels Bigger wheels allow to overcome higher obstacles – But require higher torque or reductions in the gear box Most arrangements are non-holonomic – require high control effort Combining actuation and steering on one wheel makes design complex and adds additional errors for odometry

9. Static Stability with Two Wheels Achieved by ensuring center of mass is below wheel axis Or using fancy balancing

10. Motion Control Kinematic/dynamic model of the robot Model the interaction between wheel and ground Definition of required motion – Speed control – Position control Control law that satisfies the requirements

11. Mobile Robot Kinematics Description of mechanical behavior of the robot for design and control Similar to robot manipulator kinematics However, mobile robots can move unbound with respect to their environment: – No direct way to measure robot’s position – Position must be integrated over time – Leads to inaccuracies of the position (motion) estimate Understanding mobile robot motion starts with understanding wheel constraints placed on robot’s mobility

12. Configuration: complete specification of the position of every point of the system. Position and orientation. Also, called a pose Configuration space: space of all possible configurations Workspace: the 2D or 3D ambient space the robot is in.

15. Beyond trial and error…. Establish mathematically how robot should move Kinematics: how robot will move given motor inputs Inverse-kinematics: how to move motors to get robot to do what we want https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FzCORl5BU0Q

16. Robot is at (initial frame) x I,y I,θ I Wants to get to some location but can’t control x I,y I,θ I directly

17. Robot can know Speeds of wheels: φ 1 …φ n Steering angle of steerable wheels: β 1 …β m Speed with which steering angles are changing: β 1 …β m

18. Robot can know Speeds of wheels: φ 1 …φ n Steering angle of steerable wheels: β 1 …β m Speed with which steering angles are changing: β 1 …β m These define the forward motion of the robot, the forward kinematics: f(φ 1 …φ n, β 1 …β m, β 1 …β m )=[x I,y I,θ I ] T

19. Want we want Inverse Kinematics [φ 1 …φ n, β 1 …β m, β 1 …β m ] T =f(x I,y I,θ I )

20. Robot Robot knows how movement relative to center of rotation (P) Not same as knowing how moves in world Initial Frame Robot Frame

21. Robot Position: ξ I =[x I,y I,θ I ] T Mapping motion between frames ξ R = ?? ξ I

22. [x R,y R,θ R ] T = ? [x I,y I,θ I ] T

23. Robot Position: ξ I =[x I,y I,θ I ] T Mapping between frames ξ R =R(θ)ξ I =R(θ)[x I,y I,θ I ] T where R(θ)=

24. R(θ)

25. ξ R =R(θ)ξ I Still isn’t what we want… we want the reverse of this ξ I =R(θ) -1 ξ R

26. R(θ) -1

27. If we know the relative changes in x, y, and θ, we can find the global position. How do we know what these values are?

28. Speed of the wheels Constraints – Movement on a horizontal plane – Point contact of wheels – Wheels are not deformable – Pure rolling: velocity is 0 at contact point – No friction for rotation – Steering axes orthogonal to surface – Wheels connected by rigid frame

29. Differential Drive Wheels rotate at φ Each wheel contributes rφ/2 to motion of center of rotation Speed = sum of two wheels Rotation due to right wheel is ω r =rφ/2l Counterclockwise about left wheel l is distance between wheel and center of rotation

30. Differential Drive Rotation due to left wheel: ω l =-rφ/2l Counterclockwise about right wheel Combining components:

31. Example 1/3 θ=π/2=90 degrees r=1 l=1 φ l =4, φ r =2 What is the change in the initial frame of reference? sin(π/2)=1, cos(π/2)=0

32. Example 2/3 θ=π/4=45 degrees r l =2, r r =3 l=5 φ l = φ r =6 sin(π/4)=1/√2, cos(π/4)=1/√2