1. Leader–Follower Relations
Chapter 7
Leader–Follower
Relations
Copyright © 2010 by South-Western/Cengage Learning
All rights reserved.
PowerPoint Presentation by Rhonda S. Palladi
Georgia State University

2. Chapter 7 Learning Outcomes
List the four stages of development of the dyadic approach.
Define the two kinds of relationships that can occur among leaders and followers under the vertical linkage model.
Describe the main focus of team building from a Leader–Follower perspective.
Discuss the focus of the systems and networks approach from a Leader–Follower perspective.
Describe three determining factors of high-quality LMX relationships.
Discuss the key limitation or drawback with LMX application.
Explain the cycle that leads to the Pygmalion effect.
Explain how LMX relationships can lead to unintended bias in HR practices.
Discuss the three follower influencing characteristics.
List five things a leader should delegate.
Define the key terms listed at the end of the chapter 2

3. Evolution of the Dyadic Theory
Refers to the individualized relationship between a leader and each follower in a work unit
Dyadic theory
Is an approach to leadership that attempts to explain why leaders vary their behavior with different followers
Dyadic theorists focus on the development and effects of separate dyadic relationships between leaders and followers 3

4. The Dyadic Approach
Concentrates on the heterogeneity of dyadic relationships
Argues that a single leader will form different relationships with different followers
Leaders provide support for self-worth
A leader’s support for a follower’s actions and ideas
A leader building follower’s confidence in his or her ability, integrity, and motivation
A leader paying attention to the follower’s feelings and needs 4

5. Dyadic Approach: Stages of Development
Vertical Dyadic
Linkage (VDL) Theory
Use this space for overall reminders or special tips linked to the slide or occasion. Simply select this text and replace it with your own reminders.
Leader–Member
Exchange (LMX)
Individualized leader–follower
interactions creating in-groups
and out-groups
Team Building
Focus is on the quality of each dyad
and its effects on organizational
outcomes over time
Summary
Heading. Text.
Systems and
Networks
Leaders can aspire to build
positive relationships with all
followers, not just a few
special individuals
Creating positive dyadic relationships
across traditional boundaries to
include a larger network of
participants 5

6. Vertical Dyadic Linkage (VDL) Theory
Examines how leaders form one-on-one relationships with followers, and how these often create in-groups and out-groups within the leader’s work unit
In-group
Includes followers with strong social ties to their leader in a supportive relationship characterized by high mutual trust, respect, loyalty, and influence
Out-group
Influences followers with few or no social ties to their leader, in a strictly task-centered relationship characterized by low exchange and top-down influence 6

7. Characteristics of In-Groups
Participate in important decision making
Are given added responsibility
Have greater access to the leader
Experience greater support and positive influence from the leader
Reciprocity
High exchange
Granted special favors from the leader
Mutual reinforcement based on common needs and interests
More likely to share with own group members than with members of other groups 7

8. Characteristics of Out-Groups
Are managed according to the employment contract requirements
Receive little inspiration, encouragement, or recognition
Do not experience positive relationships and influence 8

9. Discussion Question #1
In your opinion, can a leader maintain a personal friendship with some members of his or her work group or team without creating the perception of in-groups (those in his or her social circle) and out-groups (those outside his or her social circle)? 9

10. Discussion Question #2
What should a leader do to dispel any notion or misperception that there are in-groups and out-groups in his or her work unit? 10

11. Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Is the quality of the exchange relationship between an employee and his or her superior
Face-to-face leader–member interaction is critical in organizations
Assumes that leaders have limited amounts of social, personal, and organizational resources, and tend to distribute them among followers selectively
Leaders do not interact with all followers equally, which ultimately results in the formation of LMXs that vary in quality 11

12. High-Quality LMX Relationships vs. Low-Quality LMX Relationships
High-quality LMX relationships are characterized by:
Better social support
More resources
More guidance for career development
Greater follower input in decision making
Greater negotiating latitude
Low-quality LMX relationships are characterized by:
Less support
More formal supervision
Little or no involvement in decision making 12

13. Team Building
Involves a primary concern to motivate a group of individuals to work together to achieve a common objective, while alleviating any conflicts or obstacles that may arise while striving toward that objective
The emphasis is on forming relationships with all group members, not just with a few special individuals 13

14. Team Building (cont.)
It is not possible to treat all followers exactly the same
Each person must perceive that he or she is an important and respected member of the team rather than a non-entity
Workplace social exchanges between individual employees, work groups, and managers are critical to team building 14

15. Systems and Networks
There is a noticeable trend of organizations seeking and getting involved in a variety of collaborative agreements for the purposes of entering new markets and gaining innovations or new products
By collaborating, organizations hope to exchange strengths with others, which will allow all partners to develop timely, innovative, synergistic solutions to complex problems they could not address on their own 15

16. Systems and Networks (cont.)
From a network perspective, the focus is on relations among actors, whether they are individuals, work units, or organizations, who are embedded within networks of interconnected relationships that provide opportunities and constraints on behavior
A systems-oriented prospective focuses on how the quality of the LMX relationship affects followers at the interpersonal, group, and organizational levels 16

17. Systems and Networks (cont.)
Proponents of the systems and networks view contend that leader relationships are not limited to followers, but include peers, customers, suppliers, and other relevant stakeholders in the collectives of workgroups and organization-wide networks
The organization is viewed as a system of interrelated parts
To be effective, groups need to manage “boundary-spanning” relationships with other groups and external members in their organization in order to gain access to information and resources 17

18. Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Leaders form high-quality social exchanges (based on trust and liking) with some members and low-quality economic exchanges with others that do not extend beyond the employment contract
The quality of LMX affects employees’ work ethics, productivity, satisfaction, and perceptions
There is a sense among followers in the exchange relationship to reciprocate their leader’s trust and liking through “citizenship behaviors” and excellent performance 18

19. The Influence of LMX on Follower Behavior
The special relationship with in-group followers creates certain obligations and constraints for the leader
To maintain the relationship, the leader must:
Pay attention to in-group members
Remain responsive to their needs and feelings
Rely more on time-consuming influence methods such as persuasion and consultation
Not resort to coercion or heavy-handed use of authority
The followers are therefore said to have developed social capital
The set of resources that inheres in the structure of relations between members of the group, which helps them get ahead 19

20. The Influence of LMX on Follower Behavior (cont.)
The basis for establishing a deeper exchange relationship with in-group members is the leader’s control over outcomes that are desirable to the followers, which include:
Helping with a follower’s career
Giving special favors
Allowing participation in decision making
Delegating greater responsibility and authority
Sharing more information
Assigning interesting and desirable tasks
Giving tangible rewards 20

21. The Influence of LMX on Follower Behavior (cont.)
In return for these benefits, in-group members are expected to:
Be loyal to the leader
Be more committed to task objectives
Work harder
Share some of the leader’s administrative duties
To the leader this also represents social capital that gives him or her power and influence over followers
Unless this cycle of behavior is interrupted, the relationship is likely to develop to a point where there is a high degree of mutual dependence, support, and loyalty 21

22. The Influence of LMX on Follower Behavior (cont.)
The quality of LMX is central in influencing followers’:
Affective, cognitive, and behavioral experiences
Roles
Fate in their organizations 22

23. The Three-Stage Process for Developing Positive LMX Relations
The leader and follower conduct themselves as strangers
The leader and follower test each other to identify what kinds of behavior are acceptable
Each relationship is negotiated informally between each follower and the leader 23

24. The Three-Stage Process for Developing Positive LMX Relations (cont.)
Stage 1 (cont.)
Involves:
Impressions management
Is a follower’s effort to project a favorable image in order to gain an immediate benefit or improve a long-term relationship with the leader
Ingratiation
Is the effort to appear supportive, appreciative, and respectful
Self-promotion
Is the effort to appear competent and dependable 24

25. Discussion Question #3
What do you say to those who argue that tactics used by followers to get noticed by their leader (such as impressions management, ingratiation, and self-promotion) are shameful and self-serving and should be avoided? 25

26. The Three-Stage Process for Developing Positive LMX Relations (cont.)
The leader and follower become acquainted
They further refine the roles they will play together
Mutual trust, loyalty, and respect develop between leader and follower
Relationships that do not move beyond Stage 1 may deteriorate and remain at the level of an out-group 26

27. The Three-Stage Process for Developing Positive LMX Relations (cont.)
The roles reach maturity
Exchange based on self-interest is transformed into mutual commitment to the mission and objectives of the work unit
The end result of the life cycle model of LMX relationships is the creation of actual and perceived differences between in-group and out-group members 27

28. Factors that Determine LMX Quality
Followers’ attributes
Proactive followers:
Show initiative even in areas outside their immediate responsibility
Possess a strong sense of commitment to work unit goals
Show a stronger sense of responsibility for unit success
These follower attributes influence leaders to:
Show support
Delegate more
Allow greater discretion
Engage in open communication
Encourage mutual influence between themselves and their followers 28

29. Factors that Determine LMX Quality (cont.)
Leader–follower perceptions of each other
The leader’s first impressions of the follower can influence the leader’s behavior toward the follower
A positive relationship is more likely when:
The follower is perceived to be competent and dependable
The follower’s values and attitudes are similar to those of the leader 29

30. Factors that Determine LMX Quality (cont.)
Leader–follower perceptions of each other (cont.)
A favorable exchange relationship is said to correlate with:
More supportive behavior by the leader toward the follower
Less close monitoring
More mentoring
More involvement and delegation
From the follower’s perspective, leaders that are perceived to be competent, experienced, fair, and honest are more likely to be supported 30

31. Factors that Determine LMX Quality (cont.)
Situational factors
Refer to random or planned events that provide the opportunity for leaders to evaluate a follower’s work ethic or character
“Tryouts” (or “role episodes”)
Give leaders clues about employees 31

32. Effective Leader–Follower Feedback
Many leaders avoid confronting below-average performing followers
Can degenerate into personal conflict
May fail to deal with the underlying problem
Correcting deficiencies can help the follower improve
Must be done so that the leader–follower relationship is preserved 32

33. Guidelines for Effective Leader Feedback
Pre-feedback—Leader should:
Remind self to stay calm and professional
Gather accurate facts on follower performance
Remind self to avoid rush to judgment 33

34. Guidelines for Effective Leader Feedback (cont.)
During feedback session—Leader should:
Be specific in stating performance deficiency
Explain negative impact of ineffective behavior
Help follower identify reasons for poor performance
Ask follower to suggest remedies
Arrive at mutual agreement on specific action steps 34

35. Guidelines for Effective Leader Feedback (cont.)
Post-feedback session—Leader should:
Follow up to ensure implementation of action steps
Show desire to be of help to follower
Build follower’s self-confidence 35

36. Limitations of LMX Theory Application
A major limitation of LMX is measurement difficulty
LMX-7 scale
Is the most commonly used instrument for defining and measuring the quality of relationships
Measures vertical dyad linkages and not social exchanges
High-quality LMX relationship
Low-quality LMX relationship 36

37. Bias in LMX: Employee Career Implications
Pygmalion effect
Occurs when selected group members demonstrate loyalty, commitment, dedication, and trust, and as a result, win the liking of leaders who subsequently give them higher performance ratings
These ratings, which may or may not be tied to actual performance, then influence the member’s reputation, often become a matter of record, and may ultimately be used in future selection, development, and promotion decisions 37

38. Bias in LMX: Employee Career Implications (cont.)
This may have possible adverse implications for the development and career advancement of group members who (regardless of their work performance) are not similar to, familiar to, and well liked by their leader
Leaders, managers, and human resource management specialists need to be aware of the potential bias associated with high-quality LMX relationships 38

39. Bias in LMX: Employee Career Implications (cont.)
These relationships could result in negative consequences and discrimination against out-group followers
One possible approach to minimizing this type of bias is simply to train and encourage leaders to maintain high-quality LMX relationships with all followers, not just a few 39

40. Followership and Followers
Refers to the behavior of followers that results from the leader–follower influence relationship
Follower
Is a person who is being influenced by a leader 40

41. Followership and Followers (cont.)
Effective leadership requires effective followers
There are no leaders without followers
The influencing process of leaders and followers is a two-way street, with followers also influencing leaders 41

42. Followership Types Effective follower Conformist Alienated Passive
High
Pragmatic
follower
Level of Involvement
Low
Low
Critical Thinking 42
High

43. Followership Types (cont.)
Alienated followers
Are low on involvement yet are high on critical thinking
Feel cheated or unappreciated
Are capable but unwilling to participate in developing solutions to problems
Conformist followers
Are the “yes” people of the organization
Carry out all orders without considering the consequences
Avoid conflict 43

44. Followership Types (cont.)
Passive followers
Are neither high on critical thinking nor involvement
Look to the leader or others to do all the thinking
Require constant supervision
Never go beyond the job description 44

45. Followership Types (cont.)
Effective followers
Are high on critical thinking and involvement
Are not risk-averse nor do they shy from conflict
Have the courage to initiate change
Serve the best interest of the organization
Tend to function very well in self-managed teams
Complement the leader’s efforts and can be relied upon the relieve the leader of many tasks 45

46. Followership Types (cont.)
Pragmatic followers
Exhibit a little of all four styles—depending on which style fits the prevailing situation
Present an ambiguous image, with positive and negative sides
On the positive side, when an organization is going through desperate times, the pragmatic follower knows how to “work the system to get things done”
On the negative side, this same behavior can be interpreted as “playing political games,” or adjusting to maximize self-interest 46

47. Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower
Offer support to leader
Take initiative
Play counseling and coaching roles to leader when appropriate
Raise issues and/or concerns when necessary
Seek and encourage honest feedback from the leader
Clarify your role and expectations
Show appreciation
Keep the leader informed
Resist inappropriate influence of leader 47

48. Factors that Determine Follower Influence
Power Position
Education and
Experience
Locus of Control 48

49. Follower Relative Power Position
Leaders need to realize that they are no longer the sole possessors of power and influence in their work units
Some followers may have personal, referent, expert, information, and connection-based sources of power that can be used to boost upward influence
As more and more employees come to rely on a particular follower for information, expertise, or simply because of his or her personality, the follower’s relative power position increases 49

50. Follower Locus of Control
Followers with an internal locus of control prefer a work environment that facilitates:
Communication with leaders
Participation in decision making
Opportunities to be creative
Followers with an internal locus of control prefer a participative style of leadership
Followers with an external locus of control prefer a directive style of leadership
Followers with an internal locus of control are more likely to be more influential with other followers than those with an external locus of control 50

51. Follower Education and Experience
Followers with less education and experience need more guidance, coaching, and feedback
To improve their performance, inexperienced employees often seek the assistance of experienced employees
Today’s workers are far more educated, mobile, diverse, and younger than the workforce of 20 years ago 51

52. Follower Education and Experience (cont.)
The need for continuing education and training on the job is increasing
Leaders have to shift away from the top-down directive style of leading where tasks are highly structured and power tends to be centralized
They need to move toward a more decentralized, participative style of managing 52

53. Dual Role of Being a Leader and a Follower
Good leadership is found in highly effective followers
A person can be a leader and also a follower
The roles can change back and forth throughout the course of a work day
Self-managed teams require members to alternate between playing leadership and followership roles
To execute both roles effectively is a challenge, given the high potential for role conflicts and ambiguities 53

54. Delegation
Is the process of assigning the responsibility and authority for accomplishing objectives
Refers to giving employees new tasks
Success depends on a manager’s ability to know what to delegate and what not to delegate 54

55. Delegating
The leader should consider the following factors when delegating:
Task
Time required
Follower characteristics 55

56. Benefits of Delegation
Gives managers more time to perform high-priority tasks
Gets tasks accomplished and increases productivity
Enables leaders to mobilize resources and secure better results than they could have got alone
Trains employees and improves their self-esteem
Eases the stress and burden on managers
Enriches followers’ jobs 56

57. Obstacles to Delegation
Some managers want to do it all themselves because of:
Habit
Fear
That employees will fail 57

58. Signs of Delegating Too Little
Taking work home
Performing employee tasks
Being behind in work
A continual feeling of pressure
Stress
Rushing to meet deadlines
Requiring that employees seek approval before acting 58

59. Delegation Decisions Successful delegation is based on:
Selecting what task(s) to delegate
Selecting who to delegate the task(s) to 59

60. What to Delegate What to Delegate Paperwork Solving employees’
This slide relates to XX-XX.
Paperwork
Solving employees’
problems
Routine tasks
Summary Overview
XXXX
Major Title
Heading.
What to
Delegate
Tasks with
developmental
potential
Technical
matters 60

61. Confidential activities Activities delegated to you personally
What Not to Delegate
This slide relates to XX-XX.
Personnel matters
Confidential activities
Summary Overview
XXXX
Major Title
Heading.
What Not to
Delegate
Crises
Activities delegated to you personally 61

62. The Delegation Model Step 1 Explain the need for delegating and
the reasons for
selecting the
employee.
Step 2
Set objectives
that define
responsibility,
level of authority,
and deadline.
Step 3
Develop a plan.
Step 4
Establish control
checkpoints and
hold employees
accountable. 62