1. Unit 7A: Cognition: Memory

2. Introduction Memory: the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.Memory

3. The 7 Dwarfs… Difficulty of the task? Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Organization of memory by sound, letter and meaning Recall vs. Recognition

4. The 7 Dwarfs… Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Nifty Happy Stubby Crazy Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Lazy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Shorty Doc Wheezy

7. I. Information Processing

8. Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model A. EncodingA. Encoding: the processing of getting information into the memory systems – for example, by extracting meaning

9. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode

10. Processing: 3 types 1. Parallel processing: –Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously –brain’s natural mode of information –Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

11. 2. Automatic processing: –unconscious encoding of incidental information –such as Space Time Frequency Well-learned information

12. 3. Effortful Processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

14. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode Rehearsal: the conscious repetition of informationRehearsal –maintain it in consciousness –encode it for storage.

15. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) German philosopher early memory studies with nonsense syllables Developed “forgetting curve” – “retention curve” – “Ebbinghaus curve” – Amount remembered depends on the time spent.

16. Ebbinghaus curve

17. JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOZ, SUJ, XIR, DAX, LEQ, VUM, PID, KEL, WAV, TUV, SOF, GEK, HIW, JEP, RUX

18. Overlearning: –Continuing to rehearse after already learned –Rehearsing past the point of mastery –Information will be available even under stress

19. Spacing effect: –the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

20. Testing effect: repeated quizzing of previously studied materials is more beneficial to memory than restudying the information over and over.

21. Serial Position Effect –Our tendency to recall the last and first items in a list better than other items. –Recency effect Recall quickly and well b/c recent –Primacy effect Recall b/c it was first

22. Mnemonics –memory aids –vivid imagery –organizational devices Peg-word system: Grocery list activity First-letter technique: ROY G. BIV Substitution technique: 843-TOO-FINE

23. Organizing Information for Encoding Chunking –organizing items into familiar, manageable units –often occurs automatically –Examples?

24. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode

25. FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULTS OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF YEARS

26. Levels of Processing –Visual encoding: picture images –Acoustic encoding: sounds, words –Semantic encoding: meaning, words

27. Encoding: Getting Information In What We Encode

28. CHAIR

30. brain

32. gun

34. Visual Encoding Imagery –mental pictures –powerful aid to effortful processing –Grocery List **Typewriter, void, cigarette, inherent, fire, process example

35. Chunking

41. Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Sperling’s memory experiment

42. Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model B. StorageB. Storage: the retention of encoded information over time.

43. One modern model: Connectionism Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Sensory memory: –the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

44. –Working memory: a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on –Conscious –active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information –information retrieved from long-term memory.

45. Connectionism Short-term memory: –activated memory that holds a few items briefly –Encode via rehearsal –such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgotten.

46. Connectionism Long-term memory –relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. –Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

47. Modified Three-stage Processing Model of Memory

48. Storage: Retaining Information Storing Memories in the Brain

49. Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Iconic memory –a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli –a photographic picture-image memory –few tenths of a second

50. Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Echoic memory –a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli –if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

51. Storage: Retaining Information Working/Short-Term Memory Magic number Seven –Plus or minus 2 The list of magic sevens –Seven wonders of world –Seven seas –Seven deadly sins –Seven rainbow colors –Seven musical scale notes –Seven days of the week

52. Storage: Retaining Information Long-Term Memory Unlimited nature of long-term memory

53. Synaptic Changes Long-term potentiation LTP: an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

54. Stress Hormones and Memory Emotions and memories Flashbulb memory –clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

55. Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories Implicit memory: –retention independent of conscious recollection. –Nondeclarative/Procedural memory (motor skills, bike riding, playing instrument) Explicit memory –Facts & experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” –Declarative memory

56. Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories Hippocampus –Neural center located in the limbic system –Explicit memories –Names, images, events Cerebellum –Brain region extending from rear of brainstem –Implicit memories –Created by Classical Conditioning

58. The study of H.M. Amnesia: –loss of memory http://thebrainobservatory. ucsd.edu/content/video- scientia-nova-memory

59. Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model C. RetrievalC. Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage.

60. Recall –retrieve information learned earlier –fill-in-the-blank test Recognition –identify items previously learned –multiple-choice test Relearning –assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a 2 nd time

61. Retrieval Cues Mnemonic devices Priming –the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

62. Context Effects Déjà vu –Eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before” –Cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of earlier experience

63. Moods and Memories State dependent memory –More easily recalled when we are in that same state –Study drunk or sober Mood congruent memory –recall experiences that are consistent with current good or bad mood

64. II. Forgetting

65. Schacter’s sevens sins of memory Sins of Forgetting 1.Absent-mindedness: Inattention to detail leads to encoding failure 2.Transience: storage decay over time 3.Blocking: inaccessibility of stored information

66. Sins of Distortion 4.Misattribution: confusing the source of information 5.Suggestibility: the lingering effects of misinformation 6.Bias: belief-colored recollections Sin of Intrusion 7. Persistence: unwanted memories

67. Encoding Failure

71. Retrieval Failure

72. Interference Proactive interference (forward acting) –the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

73. Retroactive interference (backward-acting) –the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. Interference

74. Retrieval Failure Interference

75. Retrieval Failure Motivated Forgetting Self-serving personal histories Repression –in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism –Protects our self-concept and minimizes anxiety

76. III. Memory Construction

77. Misinformation and Imagination Effects (False Memories) Loftus memory studies –Misinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

78. Source Amnesia Retain the memory of an event but not of the context in which we acquired it. Experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined Source misattribution Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

79. Improving Memory

80. Improving Memory Techniques Study repeatedly Make the material meaningful Activate retrieval cues Use mnemonic devices Minimize interference Sleep more Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know

81. The End