1. Cognitivism vs. Constructivism Some perspectives on instructional design Juha Sorva juha.sorva@aalto.fi Learning + Technology Group Aalto University

2. Become familiar with a some concepts and isms related to instructional design. Gain ideas for further explorations of learning theory. Goals

3. Part 1 Introduction: Examples of learning activities Part 2 Cognitivism vs. constructivism Part 3 The learning activities revisited Part 4 Conclusions

4. Part 1 Introduction: Examples of learning activities

5. Code construction exercise ("Parsons problem")

6. Problem-based learning The Basser Mart requires assistance in planning the check-outs. Some people think that the best thing to do is have a single queue for customers and the person at the head of the queue goes to the first available check out. Other people think it is better to have an Express queue [...]. Your simulation will allow the planners to explore a range of scenarios. [Various other user needs omitted.] In your demonstration of the final project, you will show the simulation of two different ways of managing the queues and show how well each does in terms of things you consider important, like average wait time for service, maximum wait time or the like. Work out, as a group: what subgoals you need to achieve what you already know what you need to learn how to assess whether you have succeeded how and when to proceed, and how you make the most of the X hours available.

7. Familiarize yourself with open source project X or some other project of your choice and contribute to it in some small but meaningful way. Your contribution could be a new feature, a bug fix, or better documentation, for instance. Here are some suggestions:... Participation in the programming community

8. Create a small game of your own design and share it with your classmates and the world on the Scratch web site. Design and share

9. Study the following example, which explains how to write a class that represents bank accounts that allow you to deposit and withdraw money: 1.Start with class and name the class like this:... 2.We'll need to keep track of the balance, so let's add a variable for that:... 3.... etc.... Worked example

10. Which one is the best? All are good, under some circumstances? Not according to everyone.

11. Part 2 Cognitivism vs. Constructivism (a 12-round fight)

12. What follows is a simplification. All the quotes I use are just examples of diverse families of thought. Some of them represent extreme positions that are in polar opposition.

13. "Cognitivism" "Constructivism" various theories from educational cognitive psychology: information processing, working memory, schema theory, cognitive load, theory of multimedia learning, etc. individual constructivism, social constructivism, situated learning theory, constructionism, etc.

15. "Cognitivism" "Constructivism" Even if you don't care about the fight between these theories, you might care about some of the issues it raises.

16. Round 1 What's a teacher? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

17. A good teacher needs to know the taught content well, among other things. The teacher helps learners construct knowledge about the content. Knowledge is not content that exists independently of the learner. Constructivist education is less about covering content than it is about developing a range of views on interesting matters, with everyone involved serving as both learner and teacher.

18. Round 2 Who's driving? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

19. Teachers are in charge of setting specific goals and designing assessments. Educators are not in a privileged position that would justify externally setting educational goals for others. Instead, the goals of education must emerge from the learners themselves, their interests, and their interactions with new experiences. If the "student as judge" attitude were to dominate education, it would no longer be clear when instruction had failed and when it had succeeded, when it was moving forward and when backward. To argue for radical constructivism seems to us to engender deep contradictions. (Anderson, Reader, and Simon, 2000) If the "student as judge" attitude were to dominate education, it would no longer be clear when instruction had failed and when it had succeeded, when it was moving forward and when backward. To argue for radical constructivism seems to us to engender deep contradictions. (Anderson, Reader, and Simon, 2000) An action, operation, conceptual structure, or even a theory, is considered “viable” as long as it is useful in accomplishing a task or in achieving a goal that one has set for oneself. (von Glasersfeld, 1998) An action, operation, conceptual structure, or even a theory, is considered “viable” as long as it is useful in accomplishing a task or in achieving a goal that one has set for oneself. (von Glasersfeld, 1998)

20. Round 3 Alone or together? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

21. Individuals learn as they process information mentally. Learning is a social activity. Individuals learn within groups. Groups learn. Where the traditional teacher-centered direct instruction is the norm in teaching, there exists a paradox: “The more you teach, the less they learn.” The time the teacher spends on direct instruction takes away from the dialogue, negotiation, debate and assessment that could take place between students. Learning in its constructivist sense therefore requires us to reduce teaching that is based on direct instruction and to emphasize the social interaction between learners and personal reflection. (Sahlberg, 1996, my translation from Finnish) Where the traditional teacher-centered direct instruction is the norm in teaching, there exists a paradox: “The more you teach, the less they learn.” The time the teacher spends on direct instruction takes away from the dialogue, negotiation, debate and assessment that could take place between students. Learning in its constructivist sense therefore requires us to reduce teaching that is based on direct instruction and to emphasize the social interaction between learners and personal reflection. (Sahlberg, 1996, my translation from Finnish)

22. Round 4 Why learn? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

23. People like to solve problems, but not to work on unsolvable problems. We quickly evaluate how much mental work it will take to solve a problem. If it's too much or too little, we stop working on the problem if we can. (Willingham, 2009) People like to solve problems, but not to work on unsolvable problems. We quickly evaluate how much mental work it will take to solve a problem. If it's too much or too little, we stop working on the problem if we can. (Willingham, 2009) We should let students' own interests shape their education. Finding the right level of challenge is key to motivation. Interest in content grows with knowledge of that content.

24. Round 5 What do you know? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

25. Prior knowledge is key to how new information is processed. With increasing expertise, instructional procedures that are effective with novices can lose their effectiveness, whereas ineffective techniques can become effective. (Sweller, 2010) With increasing expertise, instructional procedures that are effective with novices can lose their effectiveness, whereas ineffective techniques can become effective. (Sweller, 2010) Constructivism characterizes the process of learning as the gradual recrafting of existing knowledge that, despite many intermediate difficulties, is eventually successful. (Smith, diSessa, Roschelle, 1993) Constructivism characterizes the process of learning as the gradual recrafting of existing knowledge that, despite many intermediate difficulties, is eventually successful. (Smith, diSessa, Roschelle, 1993) Even "misconceptions" are useful materials for further learning. Misconceptions hinder further learning.

26. Round 6 Well or ill? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

27. Studying worked examples results in better performance on subsequent tests of problem solving than solving the equivalent problems. (Sweller, 2010) Studying worked examples results in better performance on subsequent tests of problem solving than solving the equivalent problems. (Sweller, 2010) Cognitive load must be managed by designing task sequences that take learners' initially low but increasing prior knowledge into account. Students should learn by solving open-ended, ill- structured, complex problems. The desired product outcome [in non-constructivist programming pedagogy] is typically so trivial and predictable that it makes sense to have students submit their work for automated marking as a matter of convenience. The exercise is essentially one of reproduction. (Greening, 1999) The desired product outcome [in non-constructivist programming pedagogy] is typically so trivial and predictable that it makes sense to have students submit their work for automated marking as a matter of convenience. The exercise is essentially one of reproduction. (Greening, 1999) For part-tasks that require automaticity, even mechanical "drills" can be useful. (van Merrienboër and Kirschner, 2007) For part-tasks that require automaticity, even mechanical "drills" can be useful. (van Merrienboër and Kirschner, 2007) Wade in! Jump in! Direct approaches are necessarily misguided in ill-structured domains. (Spiro and DeSchryver, 2009) Direct approaches are necessarily misguided in ill-structured domains. (Spiro and DeSchryver, 2009)

28. Round 7 What is realistic? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism" Realistic as in doable? Realistic as in authentic?

29. The evidence shows that knowledge does not have to be taught in the precise context in which it will be used, and grave inefficiencies in transfer can result from tying knowledge too tightly to specific, narrow contexts. (Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 2000) The evidence shows that knowledge does not have to be taught in the precise context in which it will be used, and grave inefficiencies in transfer can result from tying knowledge too tightly to specific, narrow contexts. (Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 2000) Learning should involve authentic (professional) contexts or at least reasonable simulations of them. Knowledge is context-dependent. Learning occurs through participation in a community of practice as a legitimate member. A community of practice is an intrinsic condition for the existence of knowledge. (Lave and Wenger, 1991) A community of practice is an intrinsic condition for the existence of knowledge. (Lave and Wenger, 1991) The organization of schooling as an educational form is predicated on claims that knowledge can be decontextualized. (Lave and Wenger, 1991) The organization of schooling as an educational form is predicated on claims that knowledge can be decontextualized. (Lave and Wenger, 1991) The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession. (Kirschner, Sweller, Clarke, 2006) The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession. (Kirschner, Sweller, Clarke, 2006)

30. To consistently uphold a policy of real situations a class of rich kids could be asked to compute the most efficient route to sail a yacht from Nice to Barcelona, while a class of poor kids could be asked to compute the salary at which it is advantageous to give up welfare and take a job. (Ben-Ari, 2005) To consistently uphold a policy of real situations a class of rich kids could be asked to compute the most efficient route to sail a yacht from Nice to Barcelona, while a class of poor kids could be asked to compute the salary at which it is advantageous to give up welfare and take a job. (Ben-Ari, 2005) In the novel Walden Two, Frazier says: Since our children remain happy, energetic, and curious, we don't need to teach "subjects" at all. We give our children opportunity and guidance, and they learn for themselves. Our children are not neglected, but they're seldom, if ever, taught anything. Education in Walden Two is part of the life of the community. Our children begin to work at a very early age. (Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 2000) In the novel Walden Two, Frazier says: Since our children remain happy, energetic, and curious, we don't need to teach "subjects" at all. We give our children opportunity and guidance, and they learn for themselves. Our children are not neglected, but they're seldom, if ever, taught anything. Education in Walden Two is part of the life of the community. Our children begin to work at a very early age. (Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 2000) Cognitive psychology rose up in response to the simplistic conception of human exemplified by the behaviorist views of Skinner, which he represented in Frazier's views. (Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 2000) Cognitive psychology rose up in response to the simplistic conception of human exemplified by the behaviorist views of Skinner, which he represented in Frazier's views. (Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 2000) Wikipedia: Walden Two is controversial because its characters speak of a rejection of free will. The book embraces the proposition that the behavior of humans is determined by environmental variables, and that systematically altering environmental variables can generate a sociocultural system that very closely approximates utopia. Referee! They said the B-word!

31. Round 8 How much guidance? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism" Help, "training wheels", scaffolding From teacher, materials, etc.

32. Even if a learner could solve a problem with adequate mental effort, it is more effective and efficient to provide a complete description of "when and how". (Kirschner, 2009) Even if a learner could solve a problem with adequate mental effort, it is more effective and efficient to provide a complete description of "when and how". (Kirschner, 2009) Students should construct their own sciences. Students should discover principles and problem- solving strategies for themselves in context. Like some zombie that keeps returning from its grave, pure discovery continues to have its advocates. However, anyone who takes an evidence-based approach to educational practice must ask the same question: Where is the evidence that it works? (Mayer, 2004) Like some zombie that keeps returning from its grave, pure discovery continues to have its advocates. However, anyone who takes an evidence-based approach to educational practice must ask the same question: Where is the evidence that it works? (Mayer, 2004) PBL and IL environments are not minimally guided because many forms of scaffolding are provided. (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn, 2009) PBL and IL environments are not minimally guided because many forms of scaffolding are provided. (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn, 2009) Guided discovery is time consuming and difficult, because the learners do not know beforehand what they are required to discover. It can be useful if there is ample time available and if learners have well-developed knowledge. (van Merrienboër and Kirschner, 2007) Guided discovery is time consuming and difficult, because the learners do not know beforehand what they are required to discover. It can be useful if there is ample time available and if learners have well-developed knowledge. (van Merrienboër and Kirschner, 2007)

33. Round 9 Does it work? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

34. It is sometimes argued that excessive practice will drive out understanding. This criticism of practice (called "drill and kill," as if this phrase constituted empirical evaluation) is prominent in constructivist writings. Nothing flies more in the face of the last 20 years of research than the assertion that practice is bad. (Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 2000) It is sometimes argued that excessive practice will drive out understanding. This criticism of practice (called "drill and kill," as if this phrase constituted empirical evaluation) is prominent in constructivist writings. Nothing flies more in the face of the last 20 years of research than the assertion that practice is bad. (Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 2000) Your reductionist attempt to operationalize complex phenomena into simple variables is doomed. Your laboratory studies have no ecological validity and won't transfer to the real world. The kind of learning we're targeting cannot be measured easily if at all... Student-driven learning cannot be assessed from the outside. These [constructivist] approaches ignore evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century. (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clarke, 2006) These [constructivist] approaches ignore evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century. (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clarke, 2006)

35. Round 10 What's the goal? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

36. Domain knowledge is the basis of skills and expertise. Questions remain unresolved regarding whether to teach knowledge at all. Teach the skills of knowledge acquisition—skills that will equip a new generation to learn what they need to know to adapt flexibly to continually changing and unpredictable circumstances. [We] should teach students to use their minds well. (Kuhn, 2007) Questions remain unresolved regarding whether to teach knowledge at all. Teach the skills of knowledge acquisition—skills that will equip a new generation to learn what they need to know to adapt flexibly to continually changing and unpredictable circumstances. [We] should teach students to use their minds well. (Kuhn, 2007) We aim for generic skills like problem-solving, reading comprehension and critical thinking. We might not get equal results in terms of knowledge, but we also aim for soft skills like teamwork. Motivation is an outcome, too. Despite half a century of effort, no sophisticated, teachable general problem-solving strategies have been isolated. We must learn domain-specific solutions. (Sweller, Kirschner, and Clark in Tobias and Duffy, 2009) Despite half a century of effort, no sophisticated, teachable general problem-solving strategies have been isolated. We must learn domain-specific solutions. (Sweller, Kirschner, and Clark in Tobias and Duffy, 2009) The very processes that teachers care about most—critical thinking processes such as reasoning and problem solving— are intimately intertwined with factual knowledge that is stored in long-term memory (not just found in the environment). (Willingham, 2009) The very processes that teachers care about most—critical thinking processes such as reasoning and problem solving— are intimately intertwined with factual knowledge that is stored in long-term memory (not just found in the environment). (Willingham, 2009)

37. Round 11 How much? "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

38. Isn't good constructivist education with enough guidance really expensive? Not necessarily, but even where it is, it's worth it. How do you scale up constructivist practices to hundreds or thousands of students?

39. Round 12 Won't somebody please think of the epistemology?! "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

40. Ontology Epistemology Pedagogy Your denial of reality leads to moral relativism: in a world of one’s own construction, it is meaningless to care about others. You naively believe in objectivity and ignore the context-, subject- and theory-dependence of facts. Even the good practices that you advocate hardly require, or benefit from, justification in the form of the "garage sale of outdated philosophical falsisms" that is constructivist theory. (Prior McCarty and Schwandt, 2000) Even the good practices that you advocate hardly require, or benefit from, justification in the form of the "garage sale of outdated philosophical falsisms" that is constructivist theory. (Prior McCarty and Schwandt, 2000) You embrace the original sin of dualism.

41. Part 3 The learning activities revisited

42. Code construction exercise ("Parsons problem") Manage cognitive load by eliminating syntax from the task. Student replicates a known model solution. Short, narrow, closed assignment Doable. Inauthentic. Provides deliberate practice towards domain knowledge. "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

43. Problem-based learning Work out, as a group: what subgoals you need to achieve what you already know what you need to learn how to assess whether you have succeeded how and when to proceed, and how you make the most of the X hours available. Somewhat ill-structured. No single correct solution. Simulates a real- world scenario. Challenging task tackled by a group. Learners participate in goal-setting and the design of learning activities and assessment. The Basser Mart requires assistance in planning the check-outs. Some people think that the best thing to do is have a single queue for customers and the person at the head of the queue goes to the first available check out. Other people think it is better to have an Express queue [...]. Your simulation will allow the planners to explore a range of scenarios. [Various other user needs omitted.] In your demonstration of the final project, you will show the simulation of two different ways of managing the queues and show how well each does in terms of things you consider important, like average wait time for service, maximum wait time or the like. "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

44. Familiarize yourself with open source project X or some other project of your choice and contribute to it in some small but meaningful way. Your contribution could be a new feature, a bug fix, or better documentation, for instance. Here are some suggestions:... Participation in the programming community A genuine real-world scenario. Involves participation in a professional community of practice, perhaps in an initially peripheral but legitimate way. "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

45. Create a small game of your own design and share it with your classmates and the world on the Scratch web site. Design and share Student-chosen open- ended assignment. A potentially very challenging design task. Building for sharing. "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

46. Seymour Papert

47. Study the following example, which explains how to write a class that represents bank accounts that allow you to deposit and withdraw money: 1.Start with class and name the class like this:... 2.We'll need to keep track of the balance, so let's add a variable for that:... 3.... etc.... Worked example Studying the steps of a given solution. Building problem-solving ability via deliberate low-load practice. A clearly delimited toy problem. "Cognitivism" "Constructivism"

49. Part 4 Conclusions

50. "Cognitivism" "Constructivism" Who wins? You choose, if you wish. The two sides are not in polar opposition in most respects but do have different emphases. It's not necessary to pick a side.

53. Even if you leave the fighting to the purists, you should consider the points that are being fought over. What are the goals and who decides them? How much guidance do I provide? How and when should I fade guidance? How do I take prior knowledge into account? How do I manage cognitive load? How do I increase motivation? Are the learning activities authentic? Which community are my students being prepared for? etc.

54. Merrill reviewed leading theories of instructional design to synthesize five "first principles of learning" that are very widely agreed upon by educationalists of various persuasions. Problem-centered: Use real-world problems. Activation: Draw on prior experiences. Demonstration: Show examples of solutions and procedures. Visualize processes. Application: Have learners practice problem-solving. Provide guidance which fades with growing ability. Integration: Encourage learners to connect their skills to everyday life by having them demonstrate the skills publicly, reflect on them, or create new uses for them.

55. Why care about theories of learning? Theories suggest pedagogies. Theories provide vocabulary for thinking, discussing, and sharing. Theories can be used to make assumptions explicit, which helps to evaluate them critically.

56. So, it's cognitivism and constructivism, and that's about it? No.

57. What kind of feedback should I give to students? And when? Why do so many people believe in "learning styles" even though they don't exist? Which kind of content is more troublesome than other content, and how are learners transformed as they master it? How do I align assessment with teaching and learning? How do I activate even those students who take a surface approach to learning? What is expertise and how does it grow? Why can experts solve complex problems so easily? How can we make learning from examples more effective? How do learning objectives differ in terms of their cognitive complexity? Which kind of objectives should I target? What are misconceptions and how should they be addressed in teaching? How do I design instruction on the basis of the particular content that is being learned? What is a good way of sequencing assignments so that cognitive load is kept in check? What is an effective form of multimedia? E.g. should animations have audio? How should I lay out diagrams and text? Etc.

58. Confused? Learning and the human mind remain largely mysterious.

59. P.S.

60. Bloom found that the average student tutored one- to-one performed two standard deviations better than students who learn via conventional instructional methods. That is, "the average tutored student was above 98% of the students in the control class". From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom's_2_Sigma_Problem