1. An Informational Theory of Empathy Luciano Fadiga a, Laila Craighero a, Ovidiu Lungu b, Aldo Rustichini b a: University of Ferrara, b: University of Minnesota

2. Informational Theory of Empathy ``Empathy: To understand another person, that is, to imitate his feelings in ourselves’’ The informational theory is based on the idea that we empathize with someone to extract the information that he has. In this view, empathy is not necessarily increasing with the affinity between observer and observed, but rather with the value of the information

3. Empathy Gain The empathy gain is the difference between the expected utility of the observer if he can observe the empathic signal and if he cannot. The gain follows from the better choice of action that the observer can make after he has observed the other. This action is not the reproduction of the observed subject’s movement. For example the action may be better because the observer can better predict the future action of the observed

4. Support for the theory Mirror Neurons An earlier view on this is from…

6. Theory of Moral Sentiments (1756) Chapter 1, On Sympathy “1.1.1. How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others... Of this kind is pity, the emotion which we feel for the misery of others”

7. Sympathy as simulation ``It is the impressions of our own senses only, not those of his, which our imaginations copy.’’ [TMS, 1.1.2.] ``The mob, when they are gazing at a dancer on the slack rope, naturally writhe and twist and balance their own bodies, as they see him do, and as they feel that they themselves must do if in his situation. ‘’ [TMS, 1.1.3] Simulation Theory: to understand the others we reproduce in us their internal state

8. Is Sympathy symmetric? “The word sympathy, in its most proper and primitive signification, denotes our fellow- feeling with the sufferings, not with the enjoyments, of others.’’ [TMS, I.III.1]

9. Why Not? “…a sentiment of envy commonly prevents us from heartily sympathizing with his joy.” [TMS, I.II.32]

10. Sympathy and Envy

11. Small joys and great sorrows “There is, however, this difference between grief and joy, that we are generally most disposed to sympathize with small joys and great sorrows. The man who, by some sudden revolution of fortune, is lifted up all at once into a condition of life, greatly above what he had formerly lived in, may be assured that the congratulations of his best friends are not all of them perfectly sincere.” [TMS, 1.II.32]

12. You still have reasons to want to learn from the friend who had a sudden revolution of fortune, (and sympathize with him), to learn how you can do it yourself.

13. Informational Theory of Envy this suggests…

14. Two explanations on envy Envy is the social correspondent of regret: It teaches you that the choice that you could have made and someone else made was probably better (counterfactual thinking) Envy keeps track of your social rank: When someone else succeeds, you are losing ground

15. Main prediction of the informational theory of sympathy The main prediction of the theory is that the intensity of the empathic process is proportional to the value of the information provided by the empathic signal The value of the information is inverse-U shaped with respect to the affinity of the two subjects

16. Hypothesis When a subject observes another one, an effort is automatically made to understand the intention of the other This process is a based on an empathic reproduction The intensity of the activation is proportional to the value of the information that can be derived from it

17. You and the others In the experiment we contrast the brain activity of the empathic process when you are looking at yourself (high affinity, but also low novelty) or someone else (lower affinity, but higher novelty)

18. Areas involved in interaction with the other Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS) provides a visual description of the observed action BA44-45 code the goal of the action Insula, which connects both centers above to the limbic system, decodes the emotional implications of the action representation

19. Hypotheses The interaction will activate areas involved in communication and empathy Candidate regions: BA44, BA45 (corresponding to Monkey’s F5), Insula Superior temporal Sulcus (STS) Anterior Cingulate, BA6 BUT: how does the activation differ in different conditions?

20. Experiment Design Basic idea: analyze brain activity when two subjects are exchanging gazes, in different conditions Implementation:

21. Experiment Design Basic idea: analyze brain activity when two subjects are exchanging gazes, in different conditions Implementation:

22. Scanner’s bore

23. Subject

24. mirror

26. self other Large mirror Face, real or photograph

27. Experimental design The subject goes through different stages, interrupted by breaks In each stage he looks at the experimenter, or is looked at, or he is looking at a fixed picture, or is looking at himself. 21 subjects, 3T MRI scanner

28. Conditions Each condition is described by a pair: (What the subject does, what the experimenter does) For example (Look, Not Look) describes the condition in which the subject is looking into the eye of the experimenter, and the experimenter is not looking back

29. Five Conditions Look, Look Look, Not Look Not Look, Look Look at yourself Look at a fix picture Eyes Closed Break

30. Five Conditions Look, Look (L,L) Look, Not Look (L,NL) Not Look, Look (NL,L) Look at yourself (LYS) Look at a fix picture (LFP) Eyes Closed Break

31. Hypotheses The activation will be stronger when communication is either active of possible for the observing subject, and the information is new. Strong activation in (L, L) The activation will be smaller when the other is not watching (L,NL) The activation will be smaller when the other is.. yourself (LYS) What when the subject is not watching, but the other is? (NL,L)

32. (Look, Look) - (Look Fix Picture) Three main clusters Right BA44 Bilateral Insula BA6 and Cingulate Gyrus

33. L,L-LFP, FDR=0.02, p=0.0008

34. LL-LFP, FDR=0.02, p=0.0008

36. The information from yourself The informational value of LL is higher than LYS Therefore BA44 activated less in LYS than in LL

39. Evidence L,L- L,NL: the visual stimuli are now very close; the only difference if the angle in the eyes of the experimenter The contrast is virtually identical to the one in L,L – LFP, with the only difference of STG, in the section devoted to representation of eye movements

40. Evidence The contrast LNL – LFP: informational value is similar, the live individual face moves: STG to detect and code face-eye movements

42. STS in the contrast LNL – LFP

43. Emotional decoding The pattern in Insula is similar to the one in BA44

45. Is the Left BA44 (Broca’s Area) active?

48. The sense of self

49. NLL–LL, Parahippocampal Gyrus, Right

50. LYS-LL, Parahippocampal Gyrus, Left

53. Conclusions The interaction activates areas involved in communication and empathy (BA44, CG, Insula). The activation is stronger when communication is active or possible for the observing subject. In particular: The activation is smaller when the other is not watching The activation is smaller when the other is yourself The activation is stronger when the subject is not watching and the other is, then in the symmetric situation.