1. CPES Air Pollution – 2010 The Atmosphere Pollutants Sources, effects, solutions Acid Deposition

2. The Atmosphere Atmosphere at sea level –Nitrogen 78% –Oxygen 21% –Argon 00.93% –CO2.0355 % –He 00.00005 % –Methane 00.00017 %

3. Layers of Atmosphere Troposphere first layer that the atmosphere, in contact with the Earth, –warmest. –weather systems. –average altitude about 11 km (36,000 feet = about 7 miles up). The stratosphere –is a 15 km, 50 000 feet layer –7 to 18 miles up –temperature increases gradually to 0° C or even as much as 10° C. –ozone layer here Mesosphere – rarity of ozone –minimum temperature of about -80° C, –meteorites burn up Thermosphere – Air molecules are rare in this layer, –temperatures can theoretically rise to enormous levels

5. What is Air Pollution? How to define pollution? –Amount of any substance that is in an amount that is harmful Natural vs. Human-made Concentrations

6. Processes that Pollute (118) Vaporization –Volatile substances Fugitive Emissions –Gasoline & other low molecular weight organic chemicals Combustion – burning –Burn hydrocarbons –Many hydrocarbons contain other substances Eg coal and diesel fuel – result in air pollution – eg. sulfur –Incomplete – unburned particles (particulates) Visible smoke –Cleanest burning – only CO 2 and H 2 O Activities that create dust, etc.

7. Progress in Air Pollution Air in U.S. now cleaner than 1970 But, urban pollution still bad –Mexico city Very bad  - major health risk Mostly cars –Beijing Coal for heating homes Dramatic increase in cars –Los Angeles Number one in U.S. – ozone, carbon monoxide and particulates Cars Climate and mountains – create and trap pollution

8. Clean Air Legislation Clean Air Act of 1970 –Criteria Pollutants –National Ambient Air Quality Standards: primary and secondary (NAAQS) –Air Pollutant Standards Index EPA established 1970 Amendments – 1990 –Focus on reducing nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, ozone –Emission trading introduced for sulfur –Regulate PM 2.5

9. Environmental Protection Agency EPA - 1970 –Establishes regulations – emission standards –Financial and tech assistance –Research –Collecting and analyzing data –Usurp regulatory and punitive responsibilities if states neglect – in PA DEP responsible

10. U.S. Air Quality Much improvement in 3 decades NO 2 has increased 80% U.S. meets NAAQS goals –Exceed National Ambient Qir Quality Standards – called nonattainment areas –Example – in September, 2002 – 124 areas in which 1476 million people lived Major problems: urban areas

12. Criteria Pollutants NAAQS – for criteria pollutants Sulfur dioxide Carbon monoxide Ozone (ground level) Nitrogen dioxide Lead Particulates (now regulates only PM 2.5) –EPA Standards for aboveEPA Standards for above

13. Primary vs. Secondary Primary- as an emission Secondary – formed in atmosphere Primary Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, lead, VOCs Secondary Ozone Can be either Nitrogen dioxide and PM 10

14. Form of Pollutants Particulates and lead – particulate pollutants All others gaseous

15. Nitrogen Oxides Formed in process of high temp burning –Mostly vehicles and electric power plants So what are the problems? –Key component of photochemical smog –Eutrophication –Acid deposition –Irritant –Gives smog reddish brown color

17. Carbon Oxides Carbon monoxide-CO 2 – incomplete combustion –Irritant, and in high quantities, toxic –Produces photochemical smog Carbon dioxide - CO –Complete combustion –Not a criteria pollutant –Thus, not regulated –Global climate change –Complete combustion- always results from burning

18. Particulate matter Unburned particles, dust, and other suspended particles Most visible of all pollutants – this is smoke Size is important –PM10 – coarse, less than 10 micrometers diameter –PM2.5 - less than 2.5 micrometers diameter Problems –Some carcinogenic –Irritants in lungs –Lung diseases

19. Ultra Fine Particles Fine Particles Large Particles Sea salt nuclei Carbon black Pollens Cement dust Oil smoke Combustion nuclei Metallurgical dust and fumes Photochemical smog Insecticide dusts Coal dust Average particle diameter (micrometers or microns) 0.0010.012.510.0100.0 Tobacco smoke Paint pigments Fly ash Milled flour

20. Sulfur Dioxide and other oxides About 2/3 is human caused Colorless gas with strong odor Fuels – oil and coal – contain sulfur Key sources – –70% sulfur making electricity –Metal smelting, steel, other industrial –Small % diesel fuel, fuel oil What problems do SO x cause? –Acid deposition –Second to cancer in health effects –Lung and eye irritant

22. Lead and Other Metals Fuel combustion, ore smelting –No longer in gasoline – 94% decrease in air Problems –Lead is neurotoxin –Indoor exposure 20% inner city children Learning difficulties and mental retardation Mercury - coal burning Arsenic, cadmium, nickel, halogens These metals bioaccumulate and biomagnify

23. VOCs Organic compounds as a gas Natural production –Plants produce many –Many synthetic organics-benzene, toluene, trichloroethylene 56,000,000,000 lbs per year –Mostly hydrocarbons from unburned fuels –Key ingredient of photochemical smog

24. Photochemical Smog Formation Require: Nitrogen Oxides Sunlight VOCs Results: Ozone PANS Other oxidants

26. Nasty Stuff in Photochemical Smog oxidants including ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), nitrogen dioxide and peroxide reduction materials such as formaldehyde and acrolein

27. Health Effects of P-C Smog As for the effects on health, oxidants cause acute symptoms –stimulation of the eye (smarting eye, watery eye) –membrane irritation in the nose, throat and respiratory airway (sore throat, a feeling of having a burr in the throat and stuffy sinuses) – It is known that oxidant induces asthmatic fits. When a photochemical smog alarm is officially announced, people are advised not to do intense exercise outdoors as much as possible and do indoor activities instead. Also, those who have weak constitution or invalids are advised to remain at rest even indoors. (EPA)

28. OZONE Ozone is the prime ingredient of smog in our cities and other areas of the country At ground-level it is the prime ingredient of smog.

29. Ozone Effects When inhaled, even at very low levels, ozone can: cause acute respiratory problems aggravate asthma cause significant temporary decreases in lung capacity of 15 to over 20 percent in some healthy adults

30. Ozone Effects cause inflammation of lung tissue lead to hospital admissions and emergency room visits [10 to 20 percent of all summertime respiratory-related hospital visits in the northeastern U.S. are associated with ozone pollution] impair the body's immune system defenses, making people more susceptible to respiratory illnesses, including bronchitis and pneumonia.

31. Children are most at risk from exposure to ozone Children breathe even more air per pound of body weight than adults. –children's respiratory systems are still developing- more susceptible –Ground-level ozone is a summertime problem. –Asthma is a growing threat to children and adults. –Fourteen Americans die every day from asthma, a rate 3X than 20 years ago. –African-Americans die at a rate six times that of Caucasians.

32. Ozone - Effects on Adults Moderately exercising healthy adults can experience 15 to over 20 percent reductions in lung function from exposure to low levels of ozone over several hours.  Damage to lung tissue may be caused by repeated exposures to ozone -- something like repeated sunburns of the lungs  Results of animal studies - repeated exposure to high levels of ozone can produce permanent lung damage  Most at risk to ozone - people who are outdoors and moderately exercising during the summer months.

35. Temperature Inversion Cold air enters from outside an area, it may flow along the surface of the ground, below the warmer air. If the difference in the density and temperature of the two air parcels is sufficient they will form two distinct layers, with the cold air forming the lower layer and the warmer air becoming the upper layer.

38. Inversion layer Mountain range Sea breeze Descending warm air mass Decreasing temperature Increasing altitude

39. Acid Deposition Why not just say acid rain? What is the normal pH of rain? Effects –Aquatic ecosystems –Forest Damage –Buildings and monuments Reduction efforts

41. Wind Transformation to sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) and nitric acid (HNO 3 ) Nitric oxide (NO) Acid fog Ocean Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and NO Windborne ammonia gas and particles of cultivated soil partially neutralize acids and form dry sulfate and nitrate salts Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and particles of sulfate and nitrate salts) Farm Lakes in deep soil high in limestone are buffered Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone become acidic Wet acid deposition (droplets of H 2 SO 4 and HNO 3 dissolved in rain and snow)

42. Figure 17-11 Page 429

44. Aquatic Effects of Acid Precipitation Some Statistics –Sweden: 18000 lakes –Adirondacks: 1/2 high altitude lakes –Ontario and Quebec: 48,000; over 1 million sensitive Eggs and fry: fish and amphibians Food chain Degree of sensitivity Leaching: Aluminum & other metals

45. Water boatman Whirligig Yellow perch Lake trout Brown trout Salamander (embryonic) Mayfly Smallmouth bass Mussel 6.56.05.55.04.54.03.5 pH Figure 17-14 Page 431

46. PreventionCleanup Reduce air pollution by improving energy efficiency Reduce coal use Increase natural gas use Increase use of renewable resources Burn low-sulfur coal Remove SO 2 particulates, and NO x from smokestack gases Remove No x from motor vehicular exhaust Tax emissions of SO 2 Add lime to neutralize acidified lakes Add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes

47. Forest Damage Vermont: 50% decline in some forests Europe: by 1985 about half of forests showed damage High altitude forests: acid fog Mechanisms-hard to determine –toxic metals –insect pests and disease –Damage to mutualistic fungi

48. Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health Stats –U.S. most polluted 15% higher early death rate as contrasted to clean areas –Can mean 5-10 lower life expectancy Young, old, other respiratory problems, very active, super-sensitive Chronic: bronchitis and emphysema –250,000 in U.S./ 50,000 deaths –Smoking (3M per year worldwide)

49. “Dilution as a Solution to Pollution” Early attempts to deal with pollution Moving to “remote” locations Tall Stacks – improved local air quality, but not acceptable method to reduce levels on regional or country-wide basis –Acid precipitation quick end to this thinking

50. Pollution Prevention Historically: pollution controls –Setting and trying to enforce emission levels Innovative approaches – tradable pollution permits –Marked-based incentives –make it profitable to reduce pollution

51. Regulatory Controls Emission limits set by EPA –Each stack –Each tailpipe –Industries meet standards- fines, etc. if not Companies often fight required emission standards in court

52. Emission Standards Rules and regulations that set limits on how much pollution can be emitted from a given source. Vehicle and equipment manufacturers responded to many mobile source emission standards by redesigning vehicles and engines to reduce pollution.

53. Allowance Trading For sulfur dioxide emissions Power plants have options –Total emissions from all plants determined to meet ambient air quality standard –Reduce emissions or buy credits from another company Why might a company decide to purchase pollution credits rather than reduce emissions? –Can sell “pollution credits” if below their level

54. Air Pollution Add-On Controls Particulate Removal Sulfur Removal NOx removal and reduction Hydrocarbon reduction

55. Removing Particulates Bag filters Electrostatic precipitators Advantages and disadvantages of each Size of particulates to regulate –Currently 10 microns or greater –EPA proposed regulations-2 microns –Court Ruling: 5/14/99

57. Prevent Sulfur Removal/Reduction Switch to low sulfur fuels –Lower sulfur coal –Natural gas/petroleum/alternatives Crush, wash, chemically remove sulfur before burning

58. Removal Of Sulfur “Scrubbing” effluents as move up stack –Limewater in fine spray –Solid waste disposal of dry material

59. Dirty gas Dirty water Clean water Wet Scrubber Wet gas Cleaned gas

60. Hydrocarbon Controls Improve manufacturing processes PCV and other pollutant controls on autos Control fugitive losses Catalytic converters

61. Catalytic Converter

62. Auto and Catalytic Converter

63. Alternatives to Add-On Controls Change industrial processes –Alter burning process - eg, use pure oxygen, no nitrogen Change transportation technologies –electric cars –Hybrid cars –Natural gas cars and busses –Alcohol fuels Maintain good operating practices-training, maintenance Sell by-products (eg, fly ash)

64. Indoor Air Pollution Smoking is #1 (450,000 die/year) Radon is #2 Various other hazards –Asbestos, formaldehyde, radon –New carpets, drapes, furniture –Some cases 70x outside limits Developing countries: –burning wood, dung, charcoal –2.5 billion adversely affected

66. Radon Sources –Breakdown products Acceptable levels Testing Risk –Chart of risksChart of risks Remediation –Testing Equipment

69. Radon Testing

72. That’s All Folks Catch ya later :)