1. LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function Chapter 40

2. Diverse Forms & Common Challenges Anatomy: study of a biological form Physiology: study of biological functions Theme  form fits function © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

3. Size and shape affect how an animal interacts with its environment © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1. Result of development from fertilization to maturation 2. 1 is the result of evolution over millennia

5. Evolution of Animal Size and Shape Organisms face common constraints imposed by physical laws  Limitations relating to strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange As animals increase in size, their skeletons must be proportionately larger to support their mass, then need more muscle, then need larger skeleton… Evolutionary convergence reflects different species’ adaptations to a similar environmental challenge © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

6. Video: Shark Eating Seal

7. Seal Tuna Penguin Figure 40.2

8. Which variable has a more rapid increase as the cell radius increases? How does this affect cell anatomy? Organisms are Open-Systems: Exchange with the Environment

9. Materials exchanged include: –nutrients, –waste products, –gases Rate of exchange: proportional to a surface area Amount of exchange: proportional cell’s volume © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Cell size and shape tutorial

10. How do multicellular organisms maintain sufficient exchange for all of their cells?

11. Figure 40.3 Exchange 0.1 mm 1 mm Exchange Gastrovascular cavity Mouth (b) Two layers of cells(a) Single cell

12. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Video: Hydra Eating Daphnia

13. In flat animals such as tapeworms, the distance between cells and the environment is minimized More complex organisms have highly folded or branched internal surfaces for exchanging materials © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

14. X  btwn interstitial and circulatory fluids  cellular environment that allows for exchange of materials © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

15. External environment Food Mouth Animal body Respiratory system CO 2 O2O2 Lung tissue (SEM) Cells Interstitial fluid Excretory system Circulatory system Nutrients Digestive system Heart B l o o d Blood vessels in kidney (SEM) Lining of small intestine (SEM) Anus 100  m Unabsorbed matter (feces) 50  m 250  m Metabolic waste products (nitrogenous waste) A complex body plan helps an animal living in a variable environment to maintain a stable internal environment

16. Specialized cells organized into tissues Tissues make up organs, which together make up organ systems Some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to more than one organ system Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

17. Table 40.1

18. Tissues are classified into four main categories: Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous Exploring Structure and Function in Animal Tissues © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

19. Epithelial tissue: covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body Cells often closely joined Shapes/types: –Cuboidal Dice-shaped –Columnar Column-shaped –Squamous Tile-shaped © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

20. Arrangement: – simple (single cell layer), –stratified (multiple tiers of cells), –or pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

21. Cuboidal epithelium Simple columnar epithelium Simple squamous epithelium Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium Epithelial Tissue Figure 40.5aa

22. Figure 40.5ab Apical surface Basal surface Basal lamina (ECM) 40  m Polarity of epithelia Lumen and/or outer surface of the organ Underlying tissue

23. Connective tissue: binds and supports other tissues Sparsely packed cells scattered within fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation (“Ground substance”) Most common cell is the fibroblast which secretes the proteins for the fibers and various substances for the matrix © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

24. Three types of connective tissue fiber, all made of protein: –Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility –Elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their original length –Reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

25. Macrophages, an immune system cell, are also commonly found in connective tissue. –Clean-up wastes –Eat invaders © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. You are part superhero/ine

26. In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine to form six major types of connective tissue: –Loose connective tissue: binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place –(Dense) fibrous connective tissue: in tendons, (muscles to bone), and ligaments, (bone to bone) –Cartilage: strong and flexible support material © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

27. –Adipose tissue: stores fat for insulation and fuel –Blood: composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma –Bone: mineralized collagen and blood vessels arranged in osteons. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

28. Figure 40.5ba Blood Connective Tissue Plasma White blood cells 55  m Red blood cells Cartilage Chondrocytes Chondroitin sulfate 100  m Adipose tissue Fat droplets 150  m Bone Central canal Osteon 700  m Nuclei Fibrous connective tissue Elastic fiber 30  m 120  m Collagenous fiber Loose connective tissue

29. Muscle tissue consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

30. 3 types of muscle tissue in the vertebrate body: –Skeletal muscle: striated, voluntary movement –Smooth muscle: not striated, involuntary body activities © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. - Cardiac Muscle: striated, involuntary

31. Figure 40.5ca Muscle Tissue Skeletal muscle Nuclei Muscle fiber Sarcomere 100  m Smooth muscleCardiac muscle Nucleus Muscle fibers 25  m Nucleus Intercalated disk 50  m

32. What’s a sarcomere? A contractile unit

33. What’s an intercalated disc? Specialized junctions between cardiac cells allowing for: –Tensile strength (desmosomes) –Electrical signal conductivity (gap junctions) –Connection of thin filaments to the plasma membrane

34. Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal Nervous tissue contains –Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses –Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

35. Figure 40.5da Nervous Tissue Neurons Neuron: Dendrites Cell body Axon (Fluorescent LM) 40  m Glia Axons of neurons Blood vessel (Confocal LM) 15  m

36. Coordination and Control via the Endocrine and Nervous Systems Endocrine: system transmits chemical signals/hormones to receptive cells (why would one cell be receptive and another not?) throughout the body via blood –Relatively slow acting, but can have long- lasting effects Nervous: transmits information between specific locations Differential pathways, not signals Very fast Received by neurons, muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

37. Figure 40.6

38. Concept 40.2: Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals Animals manage their internal environment by regulating or conforming to the external environment A regulator uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external, environmental fluctuation A conformer allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes Animals may regulate some environmental variables while conforming to others © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

39. Figure 40.7

40. Homeostasis Organisms maintain a “steady state” or internal balance called homeostasis regardless of external environment Steady state equilibrium! –Inputs = outputs, [ ] gradients maintained, energy required In humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration, ion concentrations… are each maintained at a constant level © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

41. Inputs/Output : Nutrients/Wastes

42. For a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor and trigger a response The response returns the variable to the set point Mechanisms of Homeostasis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

43. Animation: Negative Feedback Right-click slide / select “Play”

44. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Positive Feedback Right-click slide / select “Play”

45. Figure 40.8

46. Integrator/ Brain Stimulus ResponseSensor

47. Feedback Control in Homeostasis A steady state is maintained by negative feedback: returns a variable to a normal range –Operons in gene regulation –Temperature regulation in animals –Plant responses to water limitations Positive feedback amplifies a stimulus and does not usually contribute to homeostasis –Lactation in mammals –Onset of labor in childbirth –Ripening of fruit © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

48. Regulation of Kidney Function Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys Figure 44.21 a Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus Drinking reduces blood osmolarity to set point H 2 O reab- sorption helps prevent further osmolarity increase STIMULUS: The release of ADH is triggered when osmo- receptor cells in the hypothalamus detect an increase in the osmolarity of the blood Homeostasis: Blood osmolarity Hypothalamus ADH Pituitary gland Increased permeability Thirst Collecting duct Distal tubule (a) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) enhances fluid retention by making the kidneys reclaim more water.

49. Alterations in Homeostasis Set points and normal ranges can change with age or show cyclic variation In animals and plants, a circadian rhythm governs physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

50. Figure 40.9b

51. Homeostasis can adjust to changes in external environment, a process called acclimatization © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 12,000 ft. above sea level! Red blood cells Increase breathing CO 2 exhalation Blood pH Urine pH Blood pH Low [O 2 ]

52. Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range –Temperature affects: Enzyme activity Ability of hemoglobin to bind O 2 Membrane fluidity © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

53. Endothermic: generate heat by metabolism –active at a greater range of external temperatures –birds and mammals –more energetically expensive than ectothermy Endothermy and Ectothermy © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

54. Ectothermic: gain heat from external sources Most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and non-avian reptiles Tolerate greater variation in internal temperature

55. Variation in Body Temperature Poikilotherm: Body temperature varies with the environment Homeotherm: Body temperature is relatively constant Not all poikilotherms are ectotherms –Some endotherms hibernate –Some poikilotherms live in water that has a very stable temperature © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

56. Balancing Heat Loss and Gain

57. Heat regulation in mammals often involves the integumentary system: skin, hair, and nails Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate: –Insulation –Circulatory adaptations –Cooling by evaporative heat loss –Behavioral responses –Adjusting metabolic heat production © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

58. Insulation Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber reduce heat flow between an animal and its environment Insulation is especially important in marine mammals such as whales and walruses © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

59. Regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects thermoregulation –Endotherms and some ectotherms Vasodilation: blood flow in the skin, facilitating heat loss Vasoconstriction: blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss Circulatory Adaptations © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

60. Countercurrent heat exchange: transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions and reduce heat loss –many marine mammals and birds Many endothermic insects have countercurrent heat exchangers that help maintain a high temperature near flight muscles Some large, fast-swimming bony fishes and sharks also use countercurrent heat exchanges © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

61. Figure 40.12 Countercurrent Heat Exchange

62. Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss Many types of animals lose heat through evaporation of water from their skin –Panting increases the cooling effect in birds and many mammals –Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to cool an animal down © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

63. Endotherms and ectotherms Some terrestrial invertebrates have postures that minimize or maximize absorption of solar heat Behavioral Responses © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

64. Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production Thermogenesis: the adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature –Increased by muscle activity such as moving or shivering –Endotherms and some ectotherms Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place when hormones cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity –Some mammals © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

65. Figure 40.14

66. Figure 40.15

67. Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes Ectotherms produce: – “Antifreeze” compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells –Enzymes active at lower temperatures –  proportion of unsaturated phospholipids in membranes Acclimatization in Thermoregulation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

68. Physiological Thermostats and Fever in Mammals Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of the brain called the hypothalamus –Triggers heat loss or heat generating mechanisms Fever is the increase to the set point for a biological thermostat –Even some ectotherms with infections seek our warmth © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

69. Figure 40.16a

70. Figure 40.16b

71. Concept 40.4: Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment Bioenergetics: the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal It determines how much food an animal needs and it relates to an animal’s size, activity, and environment © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

72. Energy Allocation and Use Food  ATP  powers cellular work After the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food molecules can be used in biosynthesis Biosynthesis includes body growth and repair, synthesis of storage material such as fat, and production of gametes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

73. Figure 40.17

74. Metabolic rate: the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time Determined by: –An animal’s heat loss –The amount of O 2 consumed or CO 2 produced Quantifying Energy Use © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

75. Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation Basal metabolic rate (BMR): metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature Standard metabolic rate (SMR): metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature Both rates assume a nongrowing, fasting, and nonstressed animal Ectotherm BMR < endotherm BMR of a comparable body size Activity also affects BMR © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

76. Size and Metabolic Rate Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass: m 3/4 Smaller animals metabolic rates per gram > than larger animals The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a: – higher oxygen delivery rate, –breathing rate, –heart rate, –and greater relative blood volume, compared with a larger animal © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

77. Figure 40.19

78. Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for endotherms and ectotherms In general, the maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain is inversely related to the duration of the activity Activity and Metabolic Rate © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

79. Figure 40.20 Energy Budgets by Species

80. Torpor and Energy Conservation Torpor: physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases –Enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions –Used by small (High BMR) endotherms Hibernation: long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity Estivation: torpor to endure high temperatures in summer and scarcity of water. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

81. Figure 40.21

82. Figure 40.UN01

83. Figure 40.UN02