1. IB EUROPEAN HISTORY REVIEW Brittany McCune and Juliane Berger

2. Unification of Germany and Italy (Paper 3 Topic 2) Topic

3. Italian Unification Events

4. 1831: “Young Italy”  Mazzini launches “Young Italy”.  This movement focused on the middle class, and was meant to ignore peasantry and land reform.  The movement was disbanded in 1836.

5. 1848: Roman Republic  Mazzini declares the Roman Republic.  Pius IX appealed to France, Austria, and Spain for help against Mazzini’s forces.

6. March 23, 1848: First War of Italian Independence  War is declared with Austria.  This war is known as the First War for Italian Independence.  The main battles were Custoza and Novara, in which the Austrians under Radetzky were able to defeat the Piedmontese.  The significance of the war was that the Italian forces realized that they were not able to defeat major powers, such as Austria if they did not combine their forces.  After losing the war, Charles Albert abdicated the throne in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel.  This was the first of three wars for Italian Unification, the second was the Franco-Austrian War of 1859, and the third was the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.

7. 1852: Cavour Becomes Prime Minister  Camillo di Cavour becomes Prime Minister of Piedmont.  He played an important role in the Second War for Italian Independence, and is given much of the credit for the unification of Italy.

8. 1858: French Support  Napoleon III declares his support of Piedmont.  In 1859, the French continued their support of the Italians in the Franco-Austrian War also known as the Second War for Italian Independence.

9. January 1859: Treaty of Plombieres  Treaty of Plombieres was passed.  It stated that the Princess of Piedmont would marry Napoleon III’s nephew.  In addition, France would fight with Italy against Austria in a defensive battle, and if Italy won, France would get Nice and Savoy.

10. July 1859: Armistice of Villafranca  Armistice of Villafranca was a cease-fire in which Austria retained Venetia.  Cavour was upset with the French and wants Victor Emmanuel to keep on fighting.  Due to Victor Emmanuel’s refusal to go along with Cavour’s wishes, Cavour resigns as Prime Minister.  As a result of the armistice, the nationalists in central Italy voted to unify under Piedmont.  Victor Emmanuel waited because of his fear of upsetting Napoleon III.  However, by 1860 Cavour returned to his position as Prime Minister.

11. March 1860: Treaty of Turin  Treaty of Turin was passed, allowing France to keep Nice and Savoy.  It also stated that France was to occupy Rome. Piedmont got Lombardy, Tuscany, and Parma.  Austria was only allowed to keep Venetia.

12. April 2-5, 1860: Invasion of Sicily  Garibaldi invades Sicily and Francis II’s 25,000 troops crush the revolt.  Garibaldi retreated to Naples and included the peasants in the revolt by advocating land reform.

13. October 26, 1860: Lead on Rome  Cavour has Victor Emmanuel lead the army to Rome.  As a result Garibaldi gave the King his conquests rather than fighting him.

14. 1866: Secret Treaty with Prussia  Italy signs a secret treaty with Prussia.  The treaty stated that if Prussia were to go to war with Austria and win with Italian aid, Italy would get Venetia.

15. 1870: Franco-Prussian War  Franco-Prussian War causes the French to remove their troops from Rome.  This is upsetting to the Pope because he wants to have protection from the French. . Plebiscites in Rome are sent out in Rome and they voted to be part of Italy, and Rome becomes the capital.

16. German Unification Events

17. 1834: Creation of the Zollverein  A customs union of Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and was joined by most of the German states.  The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.  The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification.  A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.  Varied currencies and weights and measures were obstacles to economic growth, so the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capita was needed.  The Zollverein had a significance in the German Unification in that it brought the little separate cities closer together.

18. February 1848: Frankfurt Parliament  The Frankfurt Parliament was a result of the March Revolution.  The parliament tried to draft a constitution for a unified Germany, but the political opinion is too split.- Liberals want a Constitutional Monarchy  Radicals want a Republic with universal male suffrage. There were many suggestions on how to unify Germany, one being the Kleindeutschlandplan and the other being the Großdeutschlandplan.  It is significant because it was the first time they tried to unite under a constitution.  The Großdeutschlandplan would include Austria, whereas the Kleindeutschlandplan would not.  They could not decide what do to with Austria, but in the end they agreed to the Kleindeutschlandplan, which would exclude Austria.  They offered the crown to Wilhelm I, but he denied the crown.  There were many suggestions on how to unify Germany, one being the Kleindeutschlandplan and the other being the Großdeutschlandplan

19. 1852: Treaty of London  The second, actual London Protocol was recognized by the five major European powers, including Austria, France, Prussia, Russia and the UK, as well as the Baltic Sea powers of Denmark and Sweden.  Schleswig-Holstein are under Denmark's authority, but not a part of Denmark. Denmark is not allowed to absorb the twin Duchies

20. 1864: War on Denmark  Christian IX of Denmark claims Schleswig-Holstein- Prussia declares war on Denmark  Austria joins in to 'look good' to the German population

21. 1865: End of Prussian-Danish War  The Prussian-Danish War ends.  Prussia gets Schleswig and Austria gets Holstein

22. May 1866: Reorganization of the German Confederation  Bismarck declares the reorganization of the German Confederation without Austria.  Austria was not happy about this.

23. July 1866: Invasion of Austria  von Moltke wants to invade Austria, but Bismarck does not as he wants a quick peace with them so he can win their support in fighting France Military alliance with Piedmont.  If Piedmont joins Prussia in war against Austria and win, they will get Venetia.  Military alliance with France-France will get Venetia if they stay neutral in the war with Austria.  Vague hints about maybe giving France land in the Rhineland or possibly supporting the Doctrine of Nationalities whereas it concerns Belgium -known as the "Belgium Document"

24. June 23, 1866: Battle of Sadowa  Decisive battle in the Seven Weeks War between Prussia and Austria, fought at Sadowa, near Königgrätz, Bohemia.  The Austrians, equipped with muzzle- loading rifles and relying heavily on the bayonet charge, were led by Ludwig von Benedek  The Prussians, led by Helmuth von Moltke, were armed with breech-loading needle guns; they used railroad transport to move their troops, a first in European warfare.  The Prussian victory led to Austria's exclusion from a Prussian-dominated Germany.

25. August 23, 1866: Treaty of Prague  Austria gives up political influence in Schleswig-Holstein.  A non-punitive peace as Bismarck wants no hostility.

26. 1867: Der Ausgleich  Regulated the relations between Austria and Hungary and established the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.  The kingdom of Hungary had desired equal status with the Austrian Empire, which was weakened by its defeat in the Seven Week‘s war of 1866.  The Austrian emperor Francis Josephgave Hungary full internal autonomy together with a responsible ministry, and in return Hungary agreed that the empire should still be a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs, thus maintaining its dynastic prestige abroad.  The Habsburg Empire becomes the dual monarchy Austria-Hungary

27. July 14, 1870: Ems Telegram  Bismarck publishes the Ems telegram.  A rewording of the Kaiser's response in such a way that it is extremely rude.  The Ems telegram is purposely published on the anniversary of Bastille Day to insult the French and provoke them into declaring war.

28. 1870: Battle of Wörth  This second battle of Wörth took place on 6 August 1870 in the opening stages of theFranco-Prussian war.  Shows the over- confidence of the French as they did not even bother to dig defensive trenches and consequently lost.

29. 1870: Battle of Sedan  A disastrous defeat for the French who are trapped, after having taken a valley, by mass artillery fire from the Prussians on the surrounding highlands.  This battle demonstrates the Prussian superiority in military technology and shows the French tactics are thus outdated.

30. 1871: Treaty of Frankfurt  The treaty of Frankfurt was a peace Treaty signed with France at the end of the Franco-Prussian war.  Germans hold Victory parade down Champs-Élysées.  1694 villages and cities that used to be under French control were now under German control, and it established the frontier between the French Third Republic and the German Empire.  The treaty was very punishing for France, but this is worse for Germany because now the Germans have made a big enemy out of France.  All of Alsace and half of Lorraine given to Germany. Residents that returned to Alsace-Lorraine could decide between keeping their French nationality and emigrating, or remaining in the region and becoming German citizens.  France also had to pay high reparations.  They had to pay 5 billion francs in 5 years. William I of Prussia was recognized the acceptance as German Emperor.  Furthermore, it can be seen that it started the battle over Alsace- Lorraine between France and Germany.

31. Compare and contrast the aims and achievements of Mazzini and Cavour. Question

32. Mazzini:Cavour: Mazzini created the philosophical idea of a unified Italy.Cavour‘s agreement with Napoleon III. Founded young.Captured Palermo. Mazzini closed in his beliefs and ideas.Conquered all of the Kingdom of Naples, September 1860. He did not want to compromise.Plebiscite so that Naples and Sicily became a part of the kingdom of Sardinia. Did not want foreign help (Napoleon).Wake-up call for Cavour Disappointed with how Italy got unified after the unification.Realpolitik: A system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations. Mazzini‘s uprisings were unsuccessful: 1834 in Genoa, South America. He strongly believed that only through diplomacy and policy of war (similar to Bismarck's policy of 'blood and iron') could Italian unification be achieved. He wrote 1000 books of articles.He united Italy under the leadership of Sardinia. Lombardy, Tuscany, Parma and Papal States also united with Sardinia. Was the head of the Roman Republic 1849 (lost quickly again). Finally in 1871, Rome was liberated from French control and Italy was united, with the King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, becoming the King of Italy with Rome as the Capital. Mazzini was more philosophical and passive and all his actual attempts failed. He wanted unification through a democratic revolution but his lofty ideals were not supported by the peasants and middle classes. As a result, he failed in his efforts but prepared the ground for others.

33. Both Mazzini and Cavour had achievements that contributed to the Unification of Italy; however, the goals they had for these achievements differed. Mazzini was a radical Republican who desired to unite Italy as a republic, while Cavour’s main goal was to relinquish the power of the Austrians in Italy. With consideration to their successes and failures, Cavour’s contributions were greater than those of Mazzini in the unification of Italy. Thesis:

34. Goals and Ideology:  Mazzini desired to have a united Italy that was a republic.  He was very closed minded and didn’t want to compromise on his goals.  He wanted to end Austrian hegemony through Italian unity.  Cavour believed in Realpolitik and wanted to keep Austria out of Italy no matter what the cost was.  He believed that the only way to do this was through the unification of Italy.

35. Contributions:  Mazzini founded the “Young Italy” movement in 1836.  He was the head of the Roman Republic until 1849 when they lost power.  Fought in the 1848 Revolutions in Rome.  In the Second War for Italian Independence, Cavour captured Palermo, all of the Kingdom of Naples, and Sicily, through plebiscites.  He was the Prime Minister of Piedmont, but used the power of King Victor Emmanuel unite Italy.  He gained foreign support from France and Prussia.

36. Success or Failure?  Mazzini, although he made important contributions ultimately failed in comparison to Cavour.  After the 1848 Revolution, Austria still controlled much of Italy and other than spreading ideas of unification, Mazzini’s efforts failed.  Cavour on the other hand was very successful, because of his foreign relations with France, who helped them significantly in the Franco-Austrian War (Second War for Italian Independence).  He also received the help of Prussia through their secret treaty, and by assisting them in the Austro-Prussian War (Third War for Italian Independence), he was able to gain control of the majority of Italy.

37. Mazzini and Cavour did share in contributing to the events of Italian unification, but their goals for doing so differed, since Mazzini wanted a unified Italy and Cavour just wanted an Italy free of Austrian influence. They also differed in their contributions, as Cavour contributed after the initial efforts of Mazzini were made. The most important difference between the two though, was the fact that Cavour’s efforts succeeded in unifying Italy, while Mazzini’s failed. Conclusion: