1. TESTING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CHAPTER 11 - AP PSYCHOLOGY HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=K2T45R5G3KA&LIST= PL3C0013C70A9B3D09

2. CHAPTER LEARNING TARGETS: AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: Interpret the meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve. Describe relevant labels related to intelligence testing (e.g., gifted, cognitively disabled). Debate the appropriate testing practices, particularly in relation to culture-fair test uses. Identify key contributors in intelligence research and testing (e.g., Alfred Binet, Francis Galton, Howard Gardner, Charles Spearman, Robert Sternberg, Louis Terman, David Wechsler).

3. Eugenics - the idea that one can improve the human race by careful selection of those who mate and produce offspring. Note: eugenics was a popular theory in the early twentieth century, especially in north carolina HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=9 R6RDHENCFU HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=9 R6RDHENCFU

4. WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations. In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures. This tends to be “school smarts.”

5. 5 THE MEANING OF I.Q. I.Q. or intelligence quotient is a general assessment of your ability to think and reason. Your I.Q. score is actually an indication of how you compare in this ability with the majority of people in your age group. A rating of 100, for example, means that, as compared to the majority of other people in your age group, you have a normal rate of intelligence: Most psychologists consider those failing in the range of 95-105 as having a normal or average I.Q. Since it is difficult to pinpoint with absolute accuracy, your actual I.Q. may vary 5 points either way from your test score.

6. 6 THE MEANING OF I.Q. I.Q. or intelligence quotient is a general assessment of your ability to think and reason. Finally, there are many abilities which are not measured by I.Q. testing, also called MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES. For example, I.Q. does not measure musical talent, manual dexterity, or a variety of other abilities.

7. HOW DO YOU DEFINE INTELLIGENCE? Intelligence – the capacity of an individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with their environment. Behaviors that indicate intelligence: 1. ability to learn from experience 2. ability to solve problems 3. ability to use information to adapt to the environment 4. ability to benefit from training

8. HISTORY OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS: Francis Galton – Measurement of Psychosocial Performance (Darwin’s cousin) He believed that people with excellent physical abilities are better adapted for survival  highly intelligent

9. FRANCIS GALTON: CONT. How did he measure this? 1. Strength 2. Reaction time 3. Sensitivity to pain 4. Weight discrimination Problem: How does this correlate with reasoning ability?

10. THREE THEORIES OF “MORE MODERN” INTELLIGENCE 1. Charles Spearman: General Intelligence 2. Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences (8) 3. Robert Sternberg: Multiple Intelligences (3) Contemporary Intelligence Theories

11. Your I.Q. score is actually an indication of how you compare in this ability with the majority of people in your age group. A rating of 100, for example, means that, as compared to the majority of other people in your age group, you have a normal rate of intelligence

12. THIS GRAPH IS CRITICAL TO YOUR SUCCESS- COPY IT

13. A & D

14. By the way……….. 1.IQ is associated with some simple abilities. No one with measurable IQ has difficulty deciding which of two lines is longer or whether two pairs of letters are identical. However, in order to perform these simple tasks, a person with an IQ below 70 may need up to five times longer than an individual with a higher IQ. IQ is related to breast-feeding. Even when researchers control for factors such as the sense of closeness mother and child experience through nursing, breast-fed children appear to have an IQ of 3 to 8 points higher by age 3.

15. Therefore, IQ has to do with the SPEED we process data The nervous systems of those with low IQ’s are simply less efficient. School attendance correlates with IQ. Staying in school can elevate IQ or, more accurately, keep it from slipping. IQ is related to breast-feeding. Even when researchers control for factors such as the sense of closeness mother and child experience through nursing, breast-fed children appear to have an IQ of 3 to 8 points higher by age 3.

16. IQ is not influenced by birth order. The idea that birth order influences personality and intelligence has not stood up under recent scrutiny. Moreover, the claim that large families make low- iq children is unfounded because researchers have found that low-iq parents make large families. Smart people tend to have small families, but it is not small families per se that make people smart. IQ is related to breast-feeding. Even when researchers control for factors such as the sense of closeness mother and child experience through nursing, breast-fed children appear to have an IQ of 3 to 8 points higher by age

17. To “reify intelligence” as a socially constructed concept, intelligence varies from culture to culture. Ψthus, most psychologists now define intelligence as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

18. To “reify intelligence” Ψto “reify” something is to view an abstract, immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing. Ψthus, to “reify IQ” is to treat the intelligence quotient as if it were a fixed and objectively real trait like height Ψreification handout

19. GENERAL INTELLIGENCE Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis. For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning ability factor.

20. GENERAL INTELLIGENCE The idea that general intelligence (g) exists comes from the work of Charles Spearman (1863-1945) who helped develop the factor analysis approach in statistics.

21. Still, there seems to be a tendency for those who excel in one of the clusters to score well on others, as suggested by the results of L. L. Thurstone’s ranking of subjects’ primary mental abilities (g). Thurstone LOUIS THURSTONE- one of the pioneers of factor analysis suggested that there may be as many as 56 types of intelligence that are built around 7 or 8 clusters (verbal fluency, memory, reasoning).

22. GENERAL INTELLIGENCE L. L. Thurstone, a critic of Spearman, analyzed his subjects NOT on a single scale of general intelligence, but on seven clusters of primary mental abilities, including: 1.Word Fluency 2.Verbal Comprehension 3.Spatial Ability 4.Perceptual Speed 5.Numerical Ability 6.Inductive Reasoning 7.Memory

23. GENERAL INTELLIGENCE Later psychologists analyzed Thurstone’s data and found a weak relationship between these clusters, suggesting some evidence of a g factor. G

24. CONTEMPORARY INTELLIGENCE THEORIES Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports the idea that intelligence comes in multiple forms. Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish one type of ability but not others. People with savant syndrome excel in abilities unrelated to general intelligence.

25. HOWARD GARDNER Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences and speculates about a ninth one — existential intelligence. Existential intelligence is the ability to think about the question of life, death and existence. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdLgewzcUjo &feature=youtu.be

27. ROBERT STERNBERG: TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE Robert Sternberg: Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: 1. Analytic – What is tested by traditional intelligence tests 2. Creative – How we adapt to tough situations (threshold theory – we need a certain amount of intelligence to be creative but it is not the only thing we need) 3. Practical – “streetsmarts” – ability to read and perceive people, figure out directions, etc.

28. ROBERT STERNBERG: TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V= L7C7QIRYIV0&FEATURE=YOUTU.BE

29. ROBERT STERNBERG Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences rather than eight. 1.Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests. 2.Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas. 3.Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts). PAC

30. INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY Creativity: is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. Creative people tend to be divergent thinkers. Convergent thinking - thinking that involves following a series of logical steps with the goal of arriving at the “correct” answer. Divergent thinking – thinking used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions; spontaneous, unorganized thought. Creative people generate new, unexpected ideas through first through divergent thought. Ideas are then organized using convergent thought.

31. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel ways. Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks new experiences Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within. Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom. creativity

32. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: Peter Salovey and John Mayer – combines Gardner’s inter and intrapersonal approaches Uses MEIS – Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale Tests the person’s ability to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions Just Kidding!

33. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions (Salovey and others, 2005). The test of emotional intelligence measures overall emotional intelligence and its four components.

34. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: COMPONENTS ComponentDescription Perceive emotion Recognize emotions in faces, music and stories Understand emotion Predict emotions, how they change and blend Manage emotion Express emotions in different situations Use emotion Utilize emotions to adapt or be creative

35. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: CRITICISM Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotional intelligence and question whether we stretch this idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our emotions.

38. ALFRED BINET’S MEASUREMENT OF JUDGMENT: Binet believed that we answer questions differently depending on our age. He assigned children with a “mental age” – this reflects the age at which children typically give similar responses Problem: a 6 year old and an 8 year old each 2 years behind would be proportionally different (6 year old would be further behind)

39. LEWIS TERMAN In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test. The following is the formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), introduced by William Stern:

40. MENTAL AGE AND INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT: Lewis Terman – Stanford- Binet intelligence scale The result of this test = your IQ MA / CA X 100 You take a test – Mental age How old are you? – Chronological age Multiply X 100 = your IQ Present tests are standardized with age groups up to 90 years old

41. LEWIS TERMAN What he did: In the US, Terman adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test IQ Test. Why he did it: Terman believed in eugenics Eugenics: a social movement aimed at improving the human species through selective breeding…promoted higher reproduction rates of people with ‘superior’ traits, and aimed to reduce reproduction rates of people with ‘inferior’ traits.

42. NEWEST VERSION OF STANFORD- BINET: Assess five ability areas: 1. Knowledge 2. Fluid reasoning 3. Quantitative reasoning 4. Verbal Reasoning 5. Non verbal reasoning

43. DAVID WECHSLER Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), an intelligence test for school-aged children.

44. MORE ABOUT WECHSLER: WAIS III (adults and adolescents) – latest edition that tests: 1. Vocabulary 2. Similarities 3. Object assembly 4. Block design 5. Picture arrangement and completion Results are based on deviations (IQ score) 68% of the population will have an IQ score between 85 and 115

45. WAIS WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intelligence that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems.

46. DISCUSSION: Tests are a part of your everyday life. Some of them even help decide your future choices (ACT) Questions: What makes a good test? How do we make sure the test in reliable? How do we make sure the test is valid? Why is this important?

47. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING – COGNITIVE TESTING OF MENTAL ABILITIES Psychometrics – the measurement of mental traits, abilities, and processes. A psychometrician would develop tests that would measure some construct or behavior that distinguished people You can’t measure honesty or happiness in feet or meters, so we need other methods of measurement. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lD_y nAo23D0&feature=youtu.be

48. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION For a psychological test to be acceptable it must fulfill the following three criteria: 1.Standardization 2.Reliability 3.Validity

49. STANDARDIZATION AND NORMS: Psychometrics – the measurement of mental traits, abilities, and processes. A psychometrician would develop tests that would measure some construct or behavior that distinguished people You can’t measure honesty or happiness in feet or meters, so we need other methods of measurement.

50. GOOD TEST ARE - Standardized, reliable, and valid

51. STANDARDIZATION Standardizing a test involves administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison.

52. GOOD TESTS: ARE STANDARDIZED Standardization – established test norms from a large representative sample and they are scored the same way Standardized tests are written, edited, pretested, and re- written.

53. GOOD TESTS: Standardized, reliable, and valid Standardization – established test norms from a large representative sample and they are scored the same way Standardized tests are written, edited, pretested, and re- written.

54. NORMAL CURVE Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.

55. RELIABILITY A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers establish different procedures: 1.Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are. 2.Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.

56. WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEST - RELIABILITY If a test in reliable, we should obtain the same score no matter where, when, or how many times we take it Types of Reliability: 1. test-retest – take the test 2X (familiarity) 2. Split half- compare evens and odds 3 Note – if the same people took both exams and got the same score = high interrater reliability

57. VALIDITY Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict. 1.Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait. 2.Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.

58. WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEST: VALIDITY Validity – is the test measuring or predicting what it’s supposed to? Example: Class test that doesn’t test what you’ve talked about in class Five types of validity: 1. Face 2. Content 3. Criterion 4. Predictive 5. Construct

59. FACE VALIDITY: Face validity – a measure of the extent to which the content of the test measures all of the knowledge or skills that are supposed to be included on the test- According to the test takers Example: You expect that 8- 10% of the Cognition material should be on the AP Test

60. CONTENT VALIDITY: Content Validity – same as face validity except “according to the experts. Example: Tests are completed by experts and sample populations to make sure that they are measuring what they are supposed to

61. CRITERION RELATED VALIDITY: Criterion Related Validity – How does the test correlate with other tests being given? Example: Do Mr. B’s tests compare to the AP Psych test?

62. PREDICTIVE VALIDITY: Predictive Validity – Does the test predict future success? Example: High ACT = success in college

63. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY: Construct Validity – Does the test measure the specific construct / behavior it is supposed to? This is arguably the most important type of validity

64. IF MRS. DELVECCHIO COMPARED THE SCORES OF STUDENTS ON THE ODD-NUMBERED QUESTIONS ON THE TEST WITH THEIR SCORES FOR THE EVEN-NUMBERED QUESTIONS, SHE WOULD BE ATTEMPTING TO DETERMINE IF THE TEST HAD: 1.Content validity 2.Split-half reliability 3.Predictive validity 4.Test-retest reliability 5.Concurrent validity 25

65. ABILITY, INTEREST, AND PERSONALITY TESTS: Aptitude tests – designed to predict a person’s future performance or capacity to learn (SAT) Achievement tests – designed to assess what a person has already learned (AP Psychology Test)

66. APTITUDE TESTS ARE DESIGNED TO MEASURE: 1.Previously learned facts 2.Future performance 3.Previously learned skills 4.Current competence 5.Your IQ score

67. THE APA AND TESTING: The APA has specific guidelines detailing appropriate technical and professional standards for: 1. Construction of tests 2. Evaluation of tests 3. Interpretation of tests 4. Application of tests

68. WHY DO THEY TAKE THESE MEASURES? 1. Promote the welfare and best interest of the client 2. Guard against the misuse of assessment results 3. Respect the client’s right to know the results 4. Safeguard the dignity of test takers

69. HISTORY OF TESTING AND ETHICS: Some groups, over time, have scored lower on intelligence tests and other standardized tests (ACT’s) Critics have argued that these tests are culturally biased Culture Relevant Tests – questions are based on cultural experiences of the specific test takers. Is this necessary? https://www.youtube.com /watch?v=W2bAlUKtvMk

70. EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ 135). These two groups are significantly different.

71. HIGH INTELLIGENCE Contrary to popular belief, people with high intelligence test scores tend to be healthy, well adjusted, and unusually successful academically.

72. FLYNN EFFECT In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points. This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.

73. MENTAL RETARDATION Mentally retarded individuals required constant supervision a few decades ago, but with a supportive family environment and special education they can now care for themselves.

74. HISTORY OF MENTAL RETARDATION: The Romans used people with MR as forms of amusement This practice started to fade with the introduction of Christianity throughout Europe In 1876, the American Association on Mental Retardation was formed – studied cases of MR Most cases of MR result from chromosomal abnormalities (down syndrome) The other cases usually involved head trauma

75. MENTAL RETARDATION: MR or Cognitively Delayed ranges from mild  profound Each level of MR requires different levels of assistance The vast majority of MR cases are mild (85%)

76. ADOPTION STUDIES Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.

77. HERITABILITY The variation in intelligence test scores attributable to genetics. We credit heredity with 50% of the variation in intelligence. It pertains only to why people differ from one another, not to the individual.

78. STUDIES OF CHILDREN AND TWINS: THE RESULTS Identical twins have much similar scores on IQ tests (even if raised apart) Intelligence scores of adopted children are more like those of their biological parents So, genetics seem to play a large role in IQ

79. HUMAN DIVERSITY: Racial differences in IQ scores show that African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanics all score 10-15 pts. lower than white children. Reasons: socio-economic status, possible test bias Stereotype threat – anxiety that influences members of a group concerned about their performance on a test will confirm a negative stereotype.