1. ANIMAL SYSTEMS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

2. I. Review A.Levels of Organization 1.Cells 2.Tissues a.Epithelial b.Connective c.Nervous d.Muscle 3.Organs 4.Organ Systems

3. I. Review B. Homeostasis 1.Maintaining a stable internal environment

4. I. Review B. Homeostasis 2.Negative feedback a.The original condition is canceled so conditions are returned to normal

5. I. Review B. Homeostasis 2.Negative feedback b.Steps 1) Receptor detects change 2) Control center (brain, spinal cord) evaluates the change 3) Effector corrects condition

6. RECEPTOR (e.g., free nerve ending in the skin) INTEGRATOR (such as the brain) EFFECTOR (a muscle or a gland) STIMULUS (input into the system) RESPONSE (system’s output) The response to the stimulus leads to change. The change is “fed back” to the receptor.

7. I. Review B. Homeostasis 3.Positive feedback a.An action intensifies a condition so that it is driven beyond normal limits b.Examples 1) labor contractions 2) lactation 3) sexual orgasm

8. I. Review C. Thermoregulation 1.Two Groups a.Ectotherms 1)Obtain body heat from environment 2) Includes invertebrates, reptiles and fish

9. I. Review C. Thermoregulation 1.Two Groups b. Endotherms 1) Generate own body heat 2) Includes birds and mammals

10. I. Review C. Thermoregulation 2. Body Temp is Regulated by a. Cooling and evaporation b. Warming by metabolism c. Adjusting surface area d. Adaptations 1) hibernating 2) hair, feathers blubber 3) active at night

11. II. Respiratory System A. Basics 1. Cellular Respiration producing ATP within the mitochondria 2.Respiration The movement of gases into and out of the entire organisms

12. II. Respiratory System B. Mechanisms of Respiration 1.Direct with Environment a. by diffusion b. requires large surface area c. examples: unicelluar organisms; earth worms 2.Gills a.Evaginated outgrowths from the body b. Countercurrent exchange

14. B. Mechanisms of Respiration 3.Tracheae a.chitin-lined tubes that permeate their bodies b.CO 2 exits through spiracles II. Respiratory System

15. 4.Lungs a.Invaginated cavities b.Book lungs

17. II. Respiratory System C. Gas Exchange in Humans 1.Nose, pharynx, larynx 2.Trachea (covered by epiglottis) 3. Bronchi, bronchioles 4.Aveoli 5.Diffusion between alveolar chambers and blood 6.O 2 is carried within RBC attached to the iron atoms found in hemoglobin

18. II. Respiratory System C. Gas Exchange in Humans 7.Diffusion between blood and cells 8.CO 2 a.Most is transported dissolved as bicarbonate ions (HCO 3 - ) in the plasma CO 2 + H 2 O  H 2 CO 3  H + + HCO 3 - b.Small amount transported on protein of hemoglobin

19. II. Respiratory System C. Gas Exchange in Humans 9.Mechanism of Respiration (in and out of lungs) a.Air moves in and out of lungs by changing lung volume b.Air enters lungs when Lung volume increases when diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract Air pressure in lungs becomes less than outside body causing air to rush in

20. II. Respiratory System C. Gas Exchange in Humans 10.Control of Respiration a.Increased CO 2 in blood causes blood to become acidic b. Chemoreceptors in carotid arteries (supply O 2 to brain) monitor pH of blood Decreased pH = increased breathing Negative feedback

22. III. Circulatory System A. General Background 1.Function: transports nutrients, wastes and gases to and from cells 2.Single-celled organisms use their cell surface as a point of exchange with the outside environment.

23. A. General Background 3.Sponges, the simplest animals, use ciliary action to propel sea water

24. 4.hydra and planaria use their skin as an exchange point for materials.

25. A. General Background 5.Most multicellular organisms have developed transport and circulatory systems 6.Components of a circulatory system include a)blood: a liquid plasma and cells b)heart: a muscular pump to move the blood c)blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins that deliver blood to all tissues

26. III. Circulatory System B. Two Kinds 1.Open Circulatory System a.Hemolymph O 2 rich nutrient caryying fluid b.Hemolymph is pumped by heart into internal cavity called a hemocoel or sinuses c.Hemolymph is returned to heart through holes called ostia d.Occurs in insects and most mollusks

28. III. Circulatory System B. Two Kinds 2.Closed Circulatory System a. Blood Oxygen rich nutrient caryying fluid b.Blood is confined to vessels Arteries Capillaries Veins c.Occurs in annelids, certain mollusks (octopuses, squid) and vertebrates

30. C. Vertebrate Heart Evolution Fish 2 chambers No mixing No mixing

31. C. Vertebrate Heart Evolution Amphibians 3 chambers (2 atria) Blood mixes

32. C. Vertebrate Heart Evolution Reptiles 3 chambers (2 atria; partial separation in ventricles); Blood mixes

33. C. Vertebrate Heart Evolution Birds / Mammals 4 chambers (2 atria; 2 ventricles) Blood does not mix

34. III. Circulatory System D. The Human Heart 1. Chambers a.Atria vs ventricles Atria: upper, receiving Ventricles: lower, pumping b.Left side vs right side Left: Deoxygenated pumps blood to lungs Receives blood from body Right: oxygenated pumps blood to body Receives blood from lungs

36. 2. Flow of blood through the heart

37. III. Circulatory System C. The Human Heart 2. Flow of blood Pulmonary vs Systemic circuits

39. III. Circulatory System D. The Human Heart 3. Cardiac cycle a.SA node b.AV node c.Bundle of His d.Purkinje fibers

40. III. Circulatory System D. The Human Heart 4.Heart Beat a.Ventricles contract (systole)

41. III. Circulatory System D. The Human Heart 4.Heart Beat a.Ventricles contract (systole) b.Ventricles relax (diastole)

43. III. Circulatory System D. The Human Heart 4.Blood pressure a.Ventricles contract (systole) b.Ventricles relax (diastole) c.Normal blood pressure

44. III. Circulatory System D. The Human Heart 4.Heart Beat d.Pulse The pressure wave created during each cardiac cycle

45. 1. Place your index and middle fingers in the groove on the inside of the wrist. 2. Wait until you clearly feel beats coming with a regular rhythm. 3. Count the number of beats for 15 seconds and multiply by 4 (or for 30 seconds x 2) to get the number of beats per minute. How to take a Pulse:

46. III. Circulatory System D. The Human Heart 4.Heart Beat Blood Pressure e. Blood Pressure a measure of the pressure of the blood against the walls of a blood vessel

47. Systolic pressure: a.When ventricles are contracted b.The pressure is highest Diastolic pressure: a.when the ventricles are relaxed. b.The pressure is at its lowest point B.P. Has 2 components

48. systolic over diastolic (120/80) B. P. Is measured with a sphygmo- manometer

49. a.Inflate the cuff above the subject's systolic pressure b.release the pressure valve and slowly deflate the cuff c.The first tapping sound you hear indicates the systolic pressure d.The last tapping sound you hear indicates the diastolic pressure

50. E. The Blood 1.Plasma a.Liquid part of the blood b.Contains various dissolved substances 2.Formed Elements a.Cellular components of blood b.Three kinds –WBC –RBC –Platelets

51. Formed Elements 1.Erythrocytes (RBC) a.Biconcave, anucleated cells b.Carried on hemoglobin O 2 on iron portion CO 2 on protein portion 2.Leukocytes (WBC) a.Nucleated cells b.Disease-fighting cells 3.Thrombocytes (Platelets) a.Releasing clotting factors b.Convert fibrinogen into fibrin

52. IV. Excretory System A. Help maintain homeostasis by 1.regulating water balance 2.removing harmful substances B.Osmoregulation 1.The absorption and excretion of water and dissolved substances (solutes) so the proper water balance (osmotic pressure) is maintained between the organism and its surroundings.

53. B. Osmoregulation 2. Examples a. Marine fish 1)Body is hyposmotic to environment 2)Water is constantly lost by osmosis 3)Fish must –Drink constantly –Rarely urinate –Secrete salts through gills

55. IV. Excretory System B.Osmoregulation 2. Examples b. Fresh water fish 1)Body is hyperosmotic to environment 2)Water diffuses into fish 3)Thus fish –rarely drinks –constantly urinates –absorbs salts through gills

59. IV. Excretory System C.Mechanisms 1. Contractile Vacuole a. In cytoplasm of protists b. accumulate water c. merge with cell membrane d.Release water to environment

61. IV. Excretory System C.Mechanisms 2. Flame Cells a. In platyhelminthes b. Distributed along the branched tube system that permeates flat worms c. Filters body fluids d.Wastes released through pores to exterior

63. IV. Excretory System C.Mechanisms 3. Nephridia (or metanephridia) a. In annelids b. Interstitial fluids enter a nephridium through ciliated opening called nephrostome c. Wastes released through excretory pores to exterior

65. IV. Excretory System C.Mechanisms 4. Malpighian tubules a. In terrestrial insects b. Tubes attatched to midgut c. Collect wastes from hemolymph

66. IV. Excretory System C.Mechanisms 4. Malpighian tubules d. Wastes released into gut

67. IV. Excretory System C.Mechanisms 5. Vertebrate kidney a. Consists of millions nephrons individual filtering tubes b. Produce urine c. Kidney – ureter – bladder - urethra

68. IV. Excretory System C.Mechanisms 5. Vertebrate kidney d. Structure

69. e. Function 1)Osmoregulation 2)Filter Ammonia (NH 3 ) from blood – major waste product from brake down of nucleic acids and amino acids – filtered from the blood in the kidneys C.Mechanisms 5. Vertebrate kidney

70. f. How it works 1) Bowman’s capsule 2) Convoluted tubule 3) Collecting duct

71. f. How it works 4. Filtration 5. Secretion 6. Reabsorption

72. g. Hormones 1. ADH – increases reabsorption of water increases concentration of salt in urine 2. Aldosterone –increases reabsorption of both water and Na + C.Mechanisms 5. Vertebrate kidney

73. h. Evolution –Aquatic animals excrete NH 3 (NH 4 + ) directly into surroundin gs C.Mechanisms 5. Vertebrate kidney

74. h. Evolution –Mammals convert NH 3 to urea in their livers urea is less toxic than NH 3 and thus requires less water to excrete in the urine C.Mechanisms 5.Vertebrate kidney

75. h. Evolution 3.Birds, insects, and many reptiles convert urea to uric acid which is excreted as a solid Allows water conservation 5. Vertebrate kidney

76. V. Digestive System A.Basics 1.Digestion is the chemical break down of food into smaller mc. a.Unicellular organisms use intracellular Digestion lysosome merges w/food vacuole

77. A.Basics 1.Digestion is the chemical break down of food into smaller mc. a.Most animals first use extracellular Digestion food is digested in a gastrovascular cavity and then absorbed by cells

78. V. Digestive System A.Basics 2.Common mc and what they are broken down into a. Starch – glucose mc b. Protein – amino acids c. Fats (lipids) – glycerol + fatty acid d. Nucleic Acids - nucleotides

79. B.Sequence of Events 1. Mouth a. Salivary Amylase begins the digestion of starch b. Chewing increases surface area c. Bolus ball of food you swallow

80. V. Digestive System B.Sequence of Events 2. Pharynx a. throat b. No digestion c. Epiglottis prevents swallowed food from entering trachea

81. B.Sequence of Events 3. Esophagus a. tube that leads from pharynx to stomach b. No digestion c. Peristalsis one way muscular contractions move food

82. B.Sequence of Events 4. Stomach a.Description J-shaped Cardiac sphincter Pyloric sphincter 3 muscle layers Rugae mucus

83. b. Function Storage Mixing (chyme) Physical break down of food HCl kills bacteria denatures protein Converts pepsinogen to pepsin (breaks down protein) B.Sequence of Events 4. Stomach

84. c. Hormones Gastrin Produced when food enters stomach, or the n.s. senses the availability of food Stimulates cells of stomach to produce HCl B.Sequence of Events 4. Stomach

85. B.Sequence of Events 4. Small Intestine a. Structure/function Duodenum – chemical digestion Jejunum - absorption Ileum – absorption

86. 5. Small Intestine a. Structure/function Villi – finger-like projections on intestinal wall microvilli – finger-like projections of cell membranes

88. 5. Small Intestine b. Digestive Enzymes et. al. Produced in small intestine: Proteases:Proteases: proteins Maltase/ lactase:Maltase/ lactase: disaccharides Phosphatases:Phosphatases: nucleotides

89. B.Sequence of Events 5. Small Intestine b. Digestive Enzymes et. al. Pancreas TrypsinTrypsin proteins LipaseLipase fats AmylaseAmylase starch Bicarbonate ions: help neutralize chyme

90. 5. Small Intestine b. Digestive Enzymes et. al. Liver BileBile helps neutralize chyme emulsifies fats gall bladder stores bile

92. 5. Small Intestine b. Hormones Secretin produced by duodenum stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate ions Cholecystokinin produced by duodenum stimulates liver to release bile and pancreas to release enzymes

93. B.Sequence of Events 6. Lg Intestine (colon) a. No digestion b. Fuction Reabsorption of waterReabsorption of water Forms fecesForms feces Vitamin KVitamin K produced by symbiotic bacteria produced by symbiotic bacteria