1. Prejudice formation in children Dr Louisa Jones Birmingham Educational Psychology Service

2. To provide an overview of what prejudice is and what theories exist on its formation in children. To explore factors in our community (local, national and global) that may impact on a child’s prejudice formation

3. What is Prejudice?

4. “Thinking ill of others without sufficient warrant” (Allport, 1954) “an organised predisposition to respond in an unfavourable manner toward people from an ethnic group because of their ethnic affiliation” (Aboud, 1988; p. 4) “ethnic, racial, and national prejudice can be defined as a negative orientation toward individuals or groups due only to their ethnic or racial group membership or nationality” (Raabe & Beelmann, 2011)

5. Prejudice development Children can differentiate among people based on racial cues from a very early age. By 4 most children’s racial awareness enables them to distinguish explicitly among members of different racial groups. From 4 years onwards, children from the ethnically dominant group can accurately identify their own ethnic group membership and that when required to make choices or indicate preferences, they reveal increasingly strong bias towards their ethnic in-group. From 3-4 years of age children display an increase in in-group positivity/out-group negativity in their trait attributions. Bias peaks at around 6 to 7 and then gradually declines.

6. Three major theories of prejudice formation: Social Learning Theory Social-cognitive Developmental Theory Social Identity Development Theory

7. Social Learning Theory Reflects the differential values attached to different groups within a society or community. People are a product of their social surroundings and adopt the attitudes and stereotypes attached to groups that correspond to the relative status or power held by those groups Children’s attitudes are assumed to a reflect those of their parents.

8. Social cognitive- developmental theory Qualitatively different types of prejudice at different ages as a result of cognitive changes. Most children display ethnic prejudice by 6 to 7 years. No strong evidence that children’s prejudice is influenced by parents or peers. Rather it is argued that children’s prejudice is greatly influenced by their perceptual-cognitive processes. The effect of increasing cognitive abilities is that they allow the child to attend to the differences between people instead of responding to them as category members. Individuals apply different forms of reasoning to different situations.

9. Conflicting research Role of parents Age and stages of prejudice Research paradigms used.

10. Social Identity Development Theory Proposes that ethnic prejudice is the end-point of a process that involves four sequential phases: undifferentiated, ethnic awareness, ethnic preference, and ethnic prejudice. Prior to 2 to 3 years old, children are undifferentiated (traditional racial cues lack meaning and are not salient to them). Ethnic awareness emerges at around 3 years old. Further refinement, elaboration and clarification of the child’s concept of a racial/ethnic group can continue at least to 10 or 11 years of age and comprises a number of age-related phases. For dominant group children, the implication is that by 4 or 5 years of age they enter an ethnic preference phase, characterised by a preference for their in-group.

11. Ethnic Prejudice From 6 to 7 years onwards ethnic prejudice may emerge and crystallise in those children who come to hold such attitudes. What factors could contribute to the emergence of an ethnic prejudice?

12. Ethnic Prejudice Transition from in-group preference to out-group prejudice depends upon the extent to which: 1.Children identify with their social group 2.Prejudice is shared and expressed by members of the child’s social group 3.There is competition or conflict between the in-group and an ethnic out-group which is particularly exacerbated when in-group members feel that their status or well-being is threatened in some way.

13. SIDT Does not predict specific age-related changes in ethnic prejudice which are tied to changes in cognitive development. Assumes that prejudice would normally be unlikely to occur in children younger than 6 or 7 years because their social motives and social knowledge would not be sufficiently developed to support their own feelings of out-group dislike or hatred. Assumes that when prejudice does appear in children it typically emerges after 5 to 6 years of age and is dependent upon the parameters of the social situation, and the children’s level of social group identification. Children (and adults) may never display ethnic prejudice if the group which they identify does not foster prejudicial attitudes towards ethnic minority groups.

14. The Birmingham Context What might be having an impact on the development of ethnic prejudice in the young people of Birmingham? What risk factors do you need to take into consideration as DSLs/Head teachers?

15. Risk factors that may increase likelihood of ethnic prejudice Identification with in-group Lack of opportunities to engage with members of out-groups e.g. mono-cultural schools, mono-cultural communities. All social activities occur with in-group Not educated about out-groups Schools’ ethos, culture and approach to learning only reflects that of the in-group Prejudice shared/expressed by in-group Social/family/peers hold prejudiced views Access to prejudiced viewpoints via social media from perceived in-group Institutional racism Media reporting of events Schools’ ethos, culture and approach to learning only reflects that of the in-group Competition/conflict Competition within the community for resources e.g. housing, jobs Ethnically motivated attacks Reports from war zones Reports/rumours that certain traditions are no longer allowed Campaigns against clothing worn by certain groups Values being undermined

16. Available support from the Educational Psychology Service Collaborative consultations with your setting link EP. Bespoke training for your setting. Supervision for Head teachers and DSLs An Organisational Psychology approach to support schools directly affected by Trojan Horse A BEPS course from September 2016 on Prejudice formation and Radicalisation: A psychological perspective