1. POLITICS AND SOCIETY IN CYPRUS PSIR 429

2. The dynamics of cultural diversity in Cyprus (Ottoman and British Legacy) 1.The Historical Dimensions of Cultural Diversity in Cyprus A. Ethno-cultural Factors a. The influence of religion and religious institutions b. The influence of language and education B. Political Factors a. The influence of Ottoman political and administrative systems (1571-1878) b. The influence of British colonialism (1878-1060) C. Economic Factors a. The influence of economic activity b. The influence of settlement policy during the Ottoman rule

3. The Historical Dimensions of Cultural Diversity in Cyprus A.Ethno-cultural Factors -- Phoenicians established commercial centers on the island of Cyprus beginning in the 9 th Century BC. -- Mycenaean migration from Greece started XVI Century BC. -- Unlike Phoenicians Myceneans settled in the island and colonized it. -- Assyrians took control on the island in 8 th Century BC -- Until it became a part of Roman Empire the island had been ruled by Egyptians and Persians. -- A small group of Armenians migrated to the island in 6 th Century AD. --Another smaller group was Maronites who migrated to the island from Syria in the 12 th Century AD.

4. -- Cyprus was a part of Byzantine Empire until 1191 AD. -- During Byzantine rule Greek became the official language of the island. -- The majority of population on the island was Orthodox Christian. -- After Byzantine rule on the island Lusignans and Venetians who were catholic Christians ruled the island until 1571. -- During the rule by Catholics there was a clear conflict between catholic rulers and orthodox majority population. -- Catholic rulers were the owners of the agricultural land (feodalism). -- They also used to control commercial activities on the island. -- During the Lusignan and Venecian rules the orthodox church and Orthodox Christianity were banned. -- During the Ottoman rule between 1571 – 1878 Moslems were migrated and resettled into the island.

5. Ethno-cultural Factors a. The influence of religion and religious institutions -- autonomous status obtained by the Cyprus Orthodox Church (COC) during the Byzantine rule helped to the formation of a Orthodox Christian collective identity on the island. -- during the Byzantine rule the OCC was given a political status to represent the emperor on the island. -- this status of the COC made it a culture-bearing institution

6. -- The importance of the OCC derived from two reasons: The first reason is that Cyprus was the first country ruled by a Christian ruler. The second reason was the fact that the OCC was established by St. Barnabas whose authority used to be well accepted among the Christians. -- Therefore in addition to their spiritual roles the bishops became administrative-political figures having socio-political priviledges. -- the Church leader, Arcbishop became the ETNARCH (the head of nation) -- Although it was banned during the Lusignan and Venetian periods the OCC maintained its influential position secretly as a source of an identity which was different from the dominant identity.

7. -- During the Lusignan and Venetian periods Orthodox Christianity was the most important element of the identity of majority lower classes. -- When Cyprus came in the hands of Ottoman Empire the OCC regained its privileges established during the Byzantine rule. -- Like other parts of the Ottoman empire the religious authority was enabled by the Sultan through a berat (a certificate given by the emperor) to regulate such issues as marriage, trade, inheritance and property. -- Through recognizing the OCC as the Ethnarch (representative of millet) the Ottoman rulers also aimed at facilitating tax collection. (OCC as an intermediary)

8. b. The influence of language and education Along with the effects of religious organisations, the development of a dual system in education was another factor that contributed to maintain established systems of identity. In Ottoman regime, the basic aim of education “was to train pupils to become faithful subjects and officials of the sultans and their government.” The lack of a standard and centralised system of education in Ottoman administration made the religious institutions the only influential channel of socialisation provided them with a direct control in educational system. Hodja who had been trained in a theological school was the teacher and Mosque was the place of education for Moslems.

9. The Church and Bishops performed the same functions in the Christian community. After British undertook Cyprus, they made some radical effects that served to institutionalise cultural differences into new forms. As a colonial power, British did not attempt to create a standard organization for educational activities. Legal regulations in educational system made by British had aimed at formalising the existing differences between the two communities. However, the most influential change came out with the using of English language, in some private schools that gave rise to the Orthodox Church’s opposition. Since cultural formations appeared in long term institutionalised practices, the use of English did not result in any radical changes in identity system.

10. Hodja who had been trained in a theological school was the teacher and Mosque was the place of education for Moslems. B. Political Factors a. The influence of Ottoman political and administrative systems (1571-1878) The state ideology of Ottoman Empire was based on religion, not nationalism. The most obvious of this can be seen in the relations between Ottoman Throne and its subjects. Ottoman population was divided into ‘millet’ system, by which different religious groups were granted certain local autonomy in particular community affairs. Despite Islam religion was the identifying element of the Ottoman State and its ruling elite this structure did not generate any political conflict between Mohammedans and other religious groups. bureaucracy.

11. It could be said that the ideology of Ottoman State helped to incorporate different elites from various ethnic-religious groups into the state The Ottoman political system did not impose a policy of ‘islamisation’ aiming at forcing non-Moslems to adopt Islam. On the contrary, it conferred a freedom of religion and a certain local autonomy to religious groups to provide efficiency for its administration and to increase its central- political control on its subordinate groups all over the empire. As soon as Cyprus became under its control Ottoman Empire abolished aristocratic privileges and serfdom in the island. Orthodox Church of Cyprus was entitled with the right to represent local Christians.

12. The Archbishop of Cyprus developed close relationships with ottoman central bureaucracy in Istanbul. In the wake of this success, local church had reached a position to affect central policies towards Cyprus and played most significant role in local politics between 1785- 1820. During this period, the Ottoman administration was in need of demanding the support of the Church of Cyprus to implement and collect new taxes in the island. b. The influence of British colonialism (1878-1960)

13. The British undertook the administration of Cyprus from Ottoman Empire in 1878. Between the years of 1878 and 1930, the colonial administration did not face with any serious attempt against its sovereignty in Cyprus. When Ottoman Sultan transferred the administration of the island to British, this decision did not raise any important change in the political expectations of local people in Cyprus whose basic interests were in agriculture. This situation, however, did not mean the presence of an unconditional acceptance towards colonial administration and the lack of local political attachments, within the two communities.

14. -- Elites of the two communities who were aware of their distinct identities had accepted British rule voluntarily. When the colonial administration launched certain policies to reshape the traditional social structures established by Ottomans, elites of the two communities began to insist on their traditional rights.

15. C. Economic Factors a.The influence of economic activity -- Ottomans distributed the agricultural land among Cypriot villagers -- In addition they gained the right to tranfer the ownership of the land to their children, the serfs became free peasants. -- during the venetian rule the members of the ruling elite were the owners of the land -- Christians were required to pay higher taxes than Moslems during Ottoman period -- this taxation policy of Ottomans was encouraging Christians to convert into Islam.

16. -- during the Ottoman period the most important issue for the rulers was to collect sufficient taxes and transfer revenues to the Sultan. -- However the decline in agricultural production was usual and the peasants were sometimes unwilling to pay heavy taxes which sometimes resulted in joint riots of Moslems and Christians. -- The British colonial administration made radical changes in the economic life harbor capacities in main cities were increased New techniques began to be used in agriculture Transportation system was improved Britain became the major market for agricultural product of Cyprus -- as a result of their dominance in commercial activities the Christian Cypriots adopted to new economic conditions easier than their Moslem counterparts and began to increase their control on general Cyprus economy.

17. b. The influence of settlement policy during the Ottoman rule -- Ottomans transferred Moslem population to the island after the conquest. -- moslems were resettled as groups both in the major towns and agricultural spaces -- the newcomers were settled in the villages and lands which originally were owned and used by the venetians. -- this created a dual structure in human settlements in Cyprus -- mixed settlements as well as separate settlement -- in addition to the mixed settlement there had been separate spaces in the major towns where the two communities used to live side by side -- Although the mixed settlement began to change in the mid 1950s it continued until 1974.