1. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Chapter 15 Lecture Outline Prepared by Jennifer N. Robertson-Honecker West Virginia University

2. Lipids Introduction to Lipids Lipids are biomolecules that are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water. They are defined on the basis of a physical property not by a particular functional group, thus they have a variety of structures and functions. They contain many nonpolar C—C and C—H bonds and few polar bonds resulting in their water insolubility. 2

3. Lipids Introduction to Lipids Lipids can be categorized as: 1.Hydrolyzable lipids can be converted into smaller molecules by hydrolysis with water. 3

4. Lipids Introduction to Lipids Lipids can be categorized as: 2.Nonhydrolyzable lipids cannot be cleaved into smaller units by aqueous hydrolysis. 4

5. Fatty Acids Hydrolyzable lipids are derived from fatty acids. Fatty acids are carboxylic acids (RCOOH) with long C chains of 12-20 C atoms. An example is CH 3 (CH 2 ) 14 COOH (palmitic acid): nonpolar portion = hydrophobic polar portion = hydrophillic 5

6. Fatty Acids Naturally occurring fatty acids have an even number of C atoms. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds in their long hydrocarbon chains. Unsaturated fatty acids have 1 or more double bonds (generally cis) in their long hydrocarbon chains. As the number of double bonds in the fatty acid increases, the melting point decreases. 6

7. Fatty Acids Stearic acid (mp 71 o C) is a saturated fatty acid. Oleic acid (mp 16 o C) is an unsaturated fatty acid. 7

8. Fatty Acids Linoleic and linolenic acids are essential fatty acids; they cannot be produced by the body and must be consumed. Linoleic acid is called an omega-6 acid, because of the position of the first C=C in the nonpolar chain. 8

9. Fatty Acids Linolenic acid is called an omega-3 acid, because of the position of the first C=C in the nonpolar chain. 9

10. Triacylglycerols—Fats and Oils Triacylglycerols (triglycerides) are triesters formed from glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids. Below is a generalized block diagram of a triacylglycerol: 10

11. Triacylglycerols—Fats and Oils The general reaction for the formation of a triacylglycerol is: 11

12. Triacylglycerols—Fats and Oils General Features Triacylglycerols may be composed of three identical fatty acid side chains, or from two or three different fatty acids. Animal fats and vegetable oils, the most abundant lipids, are triacylglycerols with different physical properties. The fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. 12

13. Triacylglycerols—Fats and Oils General Features Fats have higher melting points; they are solids at room temperature. Oils have lower melting points; they are liquids at room temperature. Fats are derived from fatty acids with few double bonds. Oils are derived from fatty acids having a larger number of double bonds. 13

14. Triacylglycerols—Fats and Oils General Features Solid fats have a relatively high percentage of saturated fatty acids and are generally animal in origin. 14

15. Triacylglycerols—Fats and Oils General Features Liquid oils have a higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acids and are generally vegetable in origin. In the unsaturated lipid, a cis double bond places a kink in the side chain, making it more difficult to pack efficiently in the solid state, thus leading to a lower melting point. 15

16. Triacylglycerols—Fats and Oils General Features An unsaturated triacylglycerol: 16

17. Focus on Health & Medicine Fats and Oils in the Diet Fats are used to build cell membranes, insulate the body, and store energy for later use. It is recommended that no more than 20-35% of a person’s caloric intake should come from lipids. A high intake of saturated triacylglycerols is linked to heart disease. Saturated fats stimulate cholesterol synthesis, which can lead to cholesterol plaques building up inside arteries. The result is high blood pressure, heart attack, and even stroke. 17

18. Focus on Health & Medicine Fats and Oils in the Diet Unsaturated triacylglycerols lower the risk of heart disease by decreasing the level of cholesterol in the blood. Triglycerols formed from omega-3 fatty acids are very helpful in lowering the risk of a heart attack. However, if the double bond of the unsaturated triacylglycerol is trans, the beneficial effect is lost. Trans fats, which are primarily synthesized instead of naturally occurring, act like saturated fats and increase the cholesterol levels in the blood. 18

19. Focus on Health & Medicine Fats and Oils in the Diet 19

20. Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols Triacylglycerols are hydrolyzed with water in the presence of acid, base, or enzymes (in the body). C O C O C O CH 2 —O CH— O CH 2 —O The 3 bonds that break are drawn in red. H 2 SO 4 CH 2 —OH CH— OH CH 2 —OH glycerol + C O (CH 2 ) 16 CH 3 HO 3 stearic acids 3 (CH 2 ) 16 CH 3 + 3 H 2 O 20

21. Focus on the Human Body Metabolism of Triacylglycerols Humans store energy as triacylglycerols in adipose cells below the surface of the skin, in the breast area, and surrounding internal organs. The number of adipose cells is constant; weight gained or lost causes them to swell or shrink, but not decrease or increase in number. To metabolize triacylglycerols for energy, the esters are hydrolyzed by enzymes called lipases. Complete metabolism of a triacylglycerol yields CO 2, H 2 O, and a great deal of energy. 21

22. Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols Soap Synthesis Soaps are metal salts of fatty acids prepared by basic hydrolysis (saponification) of a triacyl-glycerol. polar head ionic end nonpolar tail nonpolar end 22

23. Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols Soap Synthesis C O C O C O CH 2 —O CH —O CH 2 —O H2OH2O CH 2 —OH CH —OH CH 2 —OH glycerol + C O R Na + − O 3 soap molecules 3 R R R + 3 NaOH 23 The nonpolar tails dissolve grease and oil and the polar head makes it soluble in water.

24. Phospholipids Phospholipids are lipids that contain a P atom. 24 Phosphoacylglycerols are the most common phospholipid, they are the principal component of most cell membranes.

25. Structurally, they resemble a triacylglycerol, except the third fatty acid has been replaced with a phosphodiester bonded to an alcohol. Phospholipids Phosphoacylglycerols There are two main types of phosphoacylglycerols that differ in the identity of the R“ group in the phosphodiester. 25

26. Phospholipids Phosphoacylglycerols One of the main types of phosphoacylglycerols is cephalin: 26

27. Phospholipids Phosphoacylglycerols The second of the main types of phosphoacyl- glycerols is lecithin: 27

28. Phospholipids Phosphoacylglycerols The two fatty acid side chains form two nonpolar “tails” that lie parallel to each other. The phosphodiester end of the molecule is a charged or polar “head”. 28

29. Cell Membranes Structure of the Cell Membrane The basic unit of living organisms is the cell. The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm, the aqueous medium inside the cell. The cell membrane acts as a barrier to stop the passage of ions and molecules into or out of the cell. The other job of the membrane is to allow nutrients in and waste out. In this way, a cell membrane is selectively permeable. 29

30. Cell Membranes Structure of the Cell Membrane Phospholipids, the major component of cell membranes, contain a hydrophilic polar head and two hydrophobic nonpolar tails. 30

31. Cell Membranes Structure of the Cell Membrane When phospholipids are mixed with water, they assemble in a lipid bilayer: 31

32. Cell Membranes Structure of the Cell Membrane Cell membranes are composed of lipid bilayers: 32

33. Cell Membranes Structure of the Cell Membrane Proteins and cholesterol molecules are embedded in the lipid bilayer membrane. Peripheral proteins are embedded within the membrane and extend outward on one side only. Integral proteins extend through the entire bilayer. Sometimes carbohydrates are attached to the exterior of the cell forming glycolipids and glyco- proteins. 33

34. Cell Membranes 34

35. Focus on Health & Medicine Cholesterol, the Most Prominent Steroid Steroids are a group of lipids whose carbon skeletons contain several fused rings: 35

36. Focus on Health & Medicine Cholesterol, the Most Prominent Steroid Cholesterol, the most prominent steroid, is synthesized in the liver and found in almost all body tissues. It is obtained in the diet from many sources, including meat, cheese, butter, and eggs. 36

37. Focus on Health & Medicine Cholesterol, the Most Prominent Steroid 37

38. Steroid Hormones A hormone is a molecule that is synthesized in one part of an organism, which then elicits a response at a different site. Two important classes of steroid hormones include sex hormones and adrenal cortical steroids. The female sex hormones are estrogens and progestins. The male sex hormones are called androgens. 38

39. The estrogens estradiol and estrone control development of secondary sex characteristics, regulate the menstrual cycle, and are made in the ovaries. Steroid Hormones Female Sex Hormones: Estrogens 39

40. Steroid Hormones Female Sex Hormones: Progestin The progestin progesterone is called the “pregnancy hormone”; it is responsible for the preparation of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg. 40

41. Steroid Hormones Male Sex Hormones: Androgens Testosterone and androsterone are androgens made in the testes. They control the development of secondary sex characteristics in males. 41

42. Steroid Hormones Anabolic Steroids Some examples of anabolic steroids: 42

43. Steroid Hormones Adrenal Cortical Steroids Three examples of adrenal cortical steroids are: aldosteronecortisonecortisol 43

44. Steroid Hormones Adrenal Cortical Steroids Aldosterone regulates blood pressure and volume by controlling the concentration of Na + and K + in body fluids. Cortisone and cortisol serve as anti-inflammatory agents, which also regulate carbohydrate metabolism. Prolonged use of these steroids can have undesired side effects, including bone loss and high blood pressure. Prednisone, a synthetic alternative, has similar anti-inflammatory properties. 44

45. Focus on Health & Medicine Fat-Soluble Vitamins Vitamins are organic compounds required in small quantities for normal metabolism and must be obtained from the diet. Vitamins are either water soluble or fat soluble. The four fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) are found in fruits, vegetables, fish, liver, and dairy products. They are stored in adipose cells to be used when needed. 45

46. Focus on Health & Medicine Fat-Soluble Vitamins Vitamin A is found in liver, fish, and dairy products, and is made from β-carotene. It is needed for vision and for healthy mucous membranes. Vitamin A deficiency causes night blindness and dry eyes and skin. 46

47. Focus on Health & Medicine Fat-Soluble Vitamins Vitamin D can be synthesized from cholesterol. It can be obtained in the diet from many foods, especially milk, and helps regulate Ca + and K + metabolism. A deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets (bone malformation). 47

48. Focus on Health & Medicine Fat-Soluble Vitamins Vitamin E is an antioxidant, protecting unsaturated side chains in fatty acids from unwanted oxidation. Deficiency of vitamin E causes numerous neurological problems, although it is rare. 48

49. Focus on Health & Medicine Fat-Soluble Vitamins Vitamin K regulates the synthesis of clotting proteins (prothrombin), and deficiency of this leads to excessive or fatal bleeding. 49