2. By definition a mineral is: naturally occurring an inorganic solid ordered internal molecular structure definite chemical composition By definition a rock is: a solid aggregate of minerals Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks

3. Elements basic building blocks of minerals 118 are known (98 are naturally occurring) Atoms smallest particles of matter retains all the characteristics of an element Atomic structure the central region is called the nucleus protons (+ charges) neutrons (no charge) electron cloud negatively charged particles that surround the nucleus located in discrete energy levels called shells Composition of Minerals

4. Periodic Table of Elements

5. Structure of an Atom

6. Chemical bonding formation of a compound by combining two or more elements Ionic bonding atoms gain or lose outermost (valence) electrons to form ions ionic compounds consist of an orderly arrangement of oppositely charged ions Composition of Minerals

7. Halite (NaCl)—An Example of Ionic Bonding

8. Covalent bonding atoms share electrons to achieve electrical neutrality generally stronger than ionic bonds both ionic and covalent bonds typically occur in the same compound Metallic bonding valence electrons are free to migrate among atoms weaker and less common than other bonds Composition of Minerals

9. Isotopes and radioactive decay Mass number = sum of neutrons + protons in an atom An isotope is an atom that exhibits variation in its mass number Unstable isotopes emit particles and energy in a process known as radioactive decay Composition of Minerals

10. Minerals consist of an orderly array of atoms chemically bonded to form a particular crystalline structure The internal atomic arrangement in ionic compounds is determined by ionic size Polymorphs minerals with the same composition but different crystalline structures examples include diamond and graphite phase change is when one polymorph changes into another Structure of Minerals

11. Diamond and Graphite— Polymorphs of Carbon

12. Primary diagnostic properties determined by observation or performing simple tests several physical properties are used to identify samples of minerals Crystal form external expression of a mineral’s internal structure often interrupted due to competition for space and rapid loss of heat Physical Properties of Minerals

13. Crystals of Pyrite

14. Luster - appearance of a mineral in reflected light two (2) basic categories: metallic non-metallic other descriptive terms include vitreous, silky, or earthy Physical Properties of Minerals Galena (PbS)

15. Color generally unreliable for mineral identification often highly variable due to slight changes in mineral chemistry exotic colorations of certain minerals produce gemstones Physical Properties of Minerals Quartz (SiO2)

16. Streak - color of a mineral in its powdered form; obtained on an unglazed porcelain plate Physical Properties of Minerals

17. Hardness - resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching All minerals are compared to a standard scale called the Mohs Scale of Hardness

18. Cleavage tendency to break along planes of weak bonding produces flat, shiny surfaces described by resulting geometric shapes number of planes angles between adjacent planes Physical Properties of Minerals Common Cleavage Directions

19. Cleavage in Muscovite Mica

20. Fracture - absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken Conchoidal Fracture Specific gravity weight of a mineral / weight of an equal volume of water Average value = 2.7 Physical Properties of Minerals

21. Other properties: magnetism reaction to hydrochloric acid malleability double refraction taste smell elasticity Physical Properties of Minerals

22. Rock-forming minerals neatly 4,000 minerals have been named common minerals that make up most of the rocks of Earth’s crust only a few dozen members composed mainly of the eight elements that make up more than 98% of the continental crust Mineral Groups

23. Elemental Abundances in Continental Crust

24. Silicates most important mineral group comprises most rock-forming minerals very abundant due to large percentage of silicon and oxygen in Earth’s crust Silicon–oxygen tetrahedron fundamental building block four oxygen ions surrounding a much smaller silicon ion Mineral Groups

25. Two Illustrations of the Si-O Tetrahedron

26. Joining silicate structures single tetrahedra are linked together to form various structures including: isolated tetrahedra ring structures single- and double- chain structures sheet or layered structures complex three-dimensional structures Mineral Groups

27. Common silicate minerals light silicates: feldspar group most common mineral group exhibit two (2) directions of perfect cleavage at 90° orthoclase (potassium feldspar) and plagioclase (sodium and calcium feldspar) are the two most common members Mineral Groups

28. Plagioclase Feldspar

29. Common silicate minerals Light silicates quartz only common silicate composed entirely of O and Si hard and resistant to weathering conchoidal fracture often forms hexagonal crystals muscovite common member of the mica family excellent cleavage in one direction produces the “glimmering” brilliance often seen in beach sand Mineral Groups

30. clay minerals clay is a general term used to describe a variety of complex minerals exhibit a sheet or layered structure most originate as products of chemical weathering Dark silicates olivine group high temperature Fe–Mg silicates individual tetrahedra are linked together by Fe and Mg ions forms small, rounded crystals with no cleavage Mineral Groups

31. pyroxene group single-chain structures involving iron and magnesium two distinctive cleavages at nearly 90° augite is the most common mineral in the pyroxene group amphibole group double-chain structures involving a variety of ions two perfect cleavages exhibiting angles of 124° and 56° hornblende is the most common mineral in the amphibole group Mineral Groups

32. Cleavage Angles for Augite and Hornblende

33. Important non- silicate minerals typically divided into classes based on anions comprise only 8% of Earth’s crust often occur as constituents in sedimentary rocks Mineral Groups

34. Important non-silicate minerals carbonates primary constituents in limestone and dolostone calcite (CaCO 3 ) and dolomite CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 are the two most important carbonate minerals many nonsilicate minerals have economic value hematite (oxide mined for iron ore) halite (halide mined for salt) sphalerite (sulfide mined for zinc ore) native copper (native element mined for copper) Mineral Groups

35. Magnetite and Hematite Are Both Iron Oxides