1. JOB DESIGN, PRODUCTION AND OPERATION STANDARDS AND WORK MEASUREMENT

2. JOB DESIGN Traditional Engineering Dimension of Job Design : Often managers, responsible for many subordinates and equipment, feel overwhelmed by details. Work methods analysis aids To help managers or a staff analyst study a job once a problem has been identified certain techniques have been developed. To help managers or a staff analyst study a job once a problem has been identified certain techniques have been developed. Summary Summary Employed Machine Employed Machine Time (seconds) % Time (seconds) % Time (seconds) % Time (seconds) % Work 14 63.6 8 36.4 Idle 8 36.4 14 63.6

3. Product: process Punched cards Read in a deck of cards In an IBM 370 card reader Operator: D.V. Charted by: U.C. Time(seconds)EmployeemachineTime(seconds) 02468102022 Removes rubber band from deck of cards Picks up weight from the hopper Places deck in the hopper Replaces weight on the deck Pushes star button Idle Idle Picks up deck from the output stacker Replaces rubber band on the deck Idle Card reader reads the deck of cardsIdle12141618 Figure 8.1 Employee-machine activity chart

4. Routing, repetitive tasks with short cycle time is low to moderate production volume; stationary worker at a fixed work place Routing, repetitive tasks with long cycle time and moderate to high production volumes of workers interacts with equipment or other worker Overall conversion process; interactions of workers, workstations and work units; flow of work Operation charts, principles of motion economy Activity charts, worker-machine charts, gang process charts Process charts, flow diagrams ActivityAnalysis method Table 8.1 traditional engineering work methods aids in job design Point of origination Operations performed on an item or group of items Movement of an item or group of items from one location to another Delay Verification or check of some aspect of the item against a standard or other information

5. 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PubliccatalogStationA22StationA1StationA2StationA23MAILROOMGFEDCBA On desk On desk Put on truck To E 2 Take off truck W / BPR Back on truck On desk On desk On desk On desk Put on truck BPR from book To 16 On desk Open page s Put on shelf Put on truck White Facult y review White searching copy BPR & or copy put in book To 16 To branch library On desk With catalog entries Product process chart Part: monographs 1 Figure 8.2 Product Process Chart of Library Operation

6. 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 StationB3StationC3StationP5StationP10StationP4StationP2SeriescatalogNMLKJIH With catalog entries Accession the book W / BPR Sort W / o copy W / copy From truck W / BPR Put on truck On truck Branch D10 Gen p4 A/T Bib log date Operations are same On W / BPR Remove star cart Put on ends Put on Cards date Slips cart General to circulation end Branch to mail room Product process chart Part: monographs 2 Figure 8.2 Product Process Chart of Library Operation

7. Worker Physiology over the years considerable effort has been devoted to studying people’s physiology as it relates to their work. ( standard: 6 cal/menit) Working Environment the working environment is extremely important I designing jobs. the working environment is extremely important I designing jobs.

8. 1.The work should be arranged to provide a natural rhythm which can become automatic 2.The symmetrical nature of the body should be considered: a. The motions of the arms should be simultaneous, beginning and completing their motions at the same time b. Motions of the arms should be opposite and symmetrical 3. The human body is an ultimate machine and its full capabilities should be employed: a. Neither hand should ever be employed b. work should be distributed to other parts of the body in line with their ability c. the safe design limits of the body should be observed d. the human should be employed at its “highest” use 4.The arms and hands as weights are subject to the physical laws and energy should be conserved: a. Momentum should work for the person and not against them b. The smooth continuous arc of the ballistic is more efficient c. The distance of movements should be minimized d. Tasks should be turned over to machines 3. The tasks should be simplified: a. Eye contact should be few and grouped together b. Unnecessary actions, delays, and idle time should be eliminated c. The degree of required precision and control should be reduced d. the number of individual motions should be minimized along with the number of muscle groups involved Using the human body the way it works best Table 8.2 principles of motion economy

9. Using the human body the way it works best Arranging the workplace to assist performance Using mechanical devices to reduce human effort 1.There should be a definite place for all tools and materials. 2.Tools, materials, and controls should be located close to the point of use. 3.Tools, materials, and controls should be located to permit the best sequence and pat of motions. 4.Grafity feed bins and containers can deliver materials close to the point of use 5. The workplace should be fitted to the task and to the human 1.Vises and clamps can hold the work precisely where needed. 2.Guides can assist in positioning the work without close operator attention. 3.Controls and foot-operated devices can relive the hands of work. 4.Mechanical devices can multiply human abilities. 5. Mechanical systems should be fitted to human use. Table 8.2 principles of motion economy

10. Behavioral Dimensions of job design Job Rotation Sometimes we cannot eliminate undesirable aspects of a job by redesigning or automating it. Job Enlargement Job enlargement proponents argue that we have simplified and routinized job to the point where they are so specialized that workers perceive that to be monotonous ; workers are bored and dissatisfied. Simplified low skill level Monotony Boredom, Job dissatisfaction Tardiness, Absenteeism, Job turnover Stimulus condition Perception Affective response Behavioral response Figure 8.3 Assumptions behind job enlargement

11. Job Enrichment Job enrichment is vertical expansion, similar to vertical job enlargement, yet different in that managerial tasks are added (rather than similar tasks in job enlargement) Job Enrichment at general Foods The manufacturing vice president in the previous example told our class that his company’s interest in job enrichment stemmed directly from a competitor’s experience. Job Design In Sweden In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Saab and Volvo experimented with varying degrees of job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment and production team procedures.

12. Partial solutions in job design Although not every job can be enriched, there are many partial solutions for job that are hard to enrich particularly routine, boring, and otherwise undesirable jobs Job characteristics Routine, repetitive, boring, hot, noisy, Generally undesirable Use the job as an entry job in the Organization, with the understanding that the employee will be there only a short time. Occasionally a worker might even want to remain in the job. Post the job daily. Often you will get a few daily volunteers who are looking for a change but don’t want the job permanently. Employ the mentally handicapped, fitting them carefully to these types of job. They often make excellent employees when adequately trained and properly matched to a job. Employ part-time workers. Especially if full-time work is not available, part-time workers are often happy to do work that they would dislike on a full- time basis Partial solutions to job design Table 8.3 Partial job design solutions for job that cannot be enlarged or enriched

13. Redesign of Job Characteristics and participation Recent research in job design suggests that certain core dimensions of jobs can be redesigned to improve performance.

14. EFFECTIVE JOB DESIGN: COMBINING ENGINEERING AND BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES On the one hand we have suggested traditional industrial engineering techniques for designing jobs, techniques that are an outgrowth of the scientific management approach.

15. Traditional engineering dimension of job design Specialization of labor Activity and flow process analysis Worker physiology Working environment Behavioral dimensions of job design Job rotation Job enlargement Job enrichment Redesigning job participation Accomplishment Efficiency (productivity) Quality Goal achievement Employee responses and feelings Job satisfaction Reduced tardiness, absenteeism, turnover Internal organization Co-worker Management structure Individual characteristics Ability Knowledge Needs values External environment Feedback for redesign Job design Dimensions/Decisions Moderating Variables Expected Outcomes Figure 8.4 Effective job design

16. PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS STANDARDS Standards at Various Levels in The Organization Individual job standards The terms standard, labor standards, production standards, and time standards are used interchangeably in operations management. Departmental standards Several workers may perform as a unit, thus forming a team assembly operations.

17. Plant standards At the plant, works, or comparable service level unit (such as a hospital or a school), a specified volume of goods or services must be produced; labor, materials, and overhead standards must be maintained, and at the same time their casts must be controlled At the plant, works, or comparable service level unit (such as a hospital or a school), a specified volume of goods or services must be produced; labor, materials, and overhead standards must be maintained, and at the same time their casts must be controlled

18. Uses of Standards As a basis for making operating decisions, (labor) time standards are used to evaluate the performance of workers and facilities and for predicting, planning, and controlling operations Standard cost = standard usage x standard labor rate (8.1) Actual cost = actual usage x standard labor rate (8.2) Labor efficiency variance = standard costs – actual costs (8.3)

19. Evaluating performance Evaluating individual performance; subsequent compensation Evaluating department performance; subsequent supervisor compensation Evaluating process design, layout, and work methods Estimating expense and revenue streams in equipment evaluating as alternatives are compared Formulating standard costs Aggregate planning of work force levels and production rates Capacity planning and utilization Scheduling operations; time sequencing jobs Cost estimating of product and production lost Planning types of labor skills necessary and budgeting labor expenses Predicting, planning, and controlling operating Table 8.4 Uses of time (labor) standards Standard cost = (.10 hours/unit) (800 units) ($8/hour) = $640 Actual costs = (90 hrs) ($8/hors) = $720 Labor efficiency variance = $640 - $720 = - $80 Standard cost = (0.0833 hour/unit) (800 units) ($8/hour) = $533.12 Labor efficiency variance = $533.12 - $720 = - $186.88

20. Formal and Informal Standards Formal and Informal Standards The actual work standard may very considerably from the scientifically established industrial engineering standards.

21. WORK MEASUREMENT The Average Worker The Average Worker People very not only in such physical characteristics, arm span, and strength, but in their working pace as well Number of workers sampled Performance In unit/hour Frequency of total workers Cumulative Frequency Of workers Complementary Cumulative Frequency Of workers 5 20 45 25 5 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 0.05 0.20 0.45 0.25 0.05 0.25 0.70 0.95 1.00 0.95 0.75 0.30 0.05 0.00 Table 8.5 Distribution of 100 workers sampled

22. Performance Dimensions When establishing work standards, management generally considers quality to be the primary performance to be measured and quality the secondary standard. Measurement scales Our discussion of work measurement uses a scale in which the normal performance is scaled at 100 percent, as illustrated in figure 8.5, if performance is 25 percent above normal, the worker is producing at 125 percent of the normal scale. Our discussion of work measurement uses a scale in which the normal performance is scaled at 100 percent, as illustrated in figure 8.5, if performance is 25 percent above normal, the worker is producing at 125 percent of the normal scale.Accuracy How accurately can a work standard be set? Obviously, experienced raters can set a standard more accurately that can inexperienced raters. How accurately can a work standard be set? Obviously, experienced raters can set a standard more accurately that can inexperienced raters.

23. Work Measurement Techniques There are six basic ways of establishing a time (work) standard: 1.Ignoring formal work measurement 2.Using the historical data approach 3.Using the direct time study approach 4.Using the predetermined time study approach 5.Using the work sampling approach 6.Combining approaches 2 through 5 200 160 120 100 80 40 0 Normal performance Performance (%) Figure 8.5 Most common work measurement scale

24. Ignoring Formal work measurement For many jobs in many organizations, especially in the labor-intense service sector formal labor standards are simply not set at all. Historical data approach This method assumes that past performance represents normal performance. Direct time study approach Often called a time study, a stopwatch study, or clocking the job, this technique is certainly the most widely used method for establishing work standards in manufacturing. Perhaps you have observed a job being studied by an industrial engineer, clipboard and stopwatch in hand.

25. Standard time = Normal time 1- Allowance fraction (8.4) Normal time = Average cycle time x rating factor (8.5) Average cycle = time Σ time recorded to perform an element Number of cycle observed (8.6) Average cycle time= 8.0+7.0+9.0 4 =8.0 minutes Normal time = (8.0) (.90) = 7.2 minutes Standard time = 7.2 (1-0.15) = 8.47 minutes Observation Single cards Six cards Average time 1 2 3 4 5 average.0286.0255.0166.0276.0292.0255.1610.1540.2089.1616.2096.1790.1966.2287.2804.1831.2345.2247

26. How does direct time study work? We won’t go into the fine points here, but basically there are six steps in the procedure: 1.Observe the job being timed 2.Select a job cycles 3.Time the job far all cycles 4.Compute the normal time based on the cycle times 5.Determine allowances for personal time, delays, and fatigue Predetermined time study approach For jobs that are not currently being performed but are being planned, the predetermined time study approach is helpful in setting standards. For jobs that are not currently being performed but are being planned, the predetermined time study approach is helpful in setting standards.

27. the procedure for setting a predetermined time standard is: 1.Observe the job or think it through if it is yet to be established. 2.Record each job element. 3.Obtain a table of predetermined times for various elements and record the motion units for the various elements. 4.Add the total motion units for all elements. 5.Estimate an allowance for personal time, delays, and fatigue in motion units. 6. Add the performance motion unit and allowance unit for a standard job motion unit together and convert these motion unit to actual time in minutes or hours. This total time is the resulting predetermined time standard

28. Work Sampling Approach work sampling does not involve stopwatch measurement, as do many of the other techniques; instead, it is based on simple random sampling techniques derived from statistical sampling theory. Its purpose is to estimate what proportion of a worker’s time is devoted to work activities. It is proceeds along the following steps: 1.Decide what condition you want define as “working” and what conditions you want to define as “not working” not working consists of all activities not specifically defined as working. 2.Observe the activity at selected intervals, recording whether a person is working or not. 3.Calculate the proportion of the time a worker is engaged in work with this formula: number of observation which working occurred (total number of observation) x n = P= (8.7)

29. Right handcodeTMUcodeleft hand Subtotal Error allowance 14.2 3.5 10.6 3.5 13.4 5.6 G3 Subtotal Error allowance subtotal 50.8 304.8 5.6 13.4 4.0 15.0 342.8 3.2 346.0 51.9 Total TMU397.9 R12D G1B AP2 T45S M12B G3 M12B D1E WP(1) Reach to cards Grasp a card Apply pressure to separate Turn card Move to focus eyes Subtotal Multiplied by 6 Transfer cards from other hand Move to final box Disengage cards Walk to start again Transfer card from other hand subtotal multiplied by 6 Subtotal 15 percent Personal, fatigue, And delay allowance Total TMU Table 8.6 Methods time measurement chart for the quantity standard

30. Day Number of observation Number of circulation (working) observations 16 15 20 16 83 Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday total 8 10 48 83 x n = P= =. 578 Total study time Percent of time employee observed working Performance rating factor xx Number of pieces produced Total time =(8.8)

31. Combining Work Measurement Techniques Which work measurement technique should you use? In practice, they are used in combination, as cross- checks Work Measurement for white-collar workers Among the work measurement techniques presented, which appear most suitable for white-collar workers? Since white-collar jobs are typically labor intense and minimally automated, the same measurement technique employed in the service sector would seem sampling.

32. Current usage of work measurement A comprehensive 1976 survey of U.S. and Canadian industries asked a simple question, “Are you using work measurement and if you do, for what purposes?” this study was compared with a similar survey factory magazine had conducted in 1959. Day Percent of time used Time study Predetermined approaches Standard data Predetermined time standard system Estimate based on historical experience Work sampling others 89.5 61.4 32.2 44.2 21.3 3.0 Table 8.7 How standards are established