TEN STEPS to IMPROVING COLLEGE READING SKILLS

TEN STEPS to IMPROVING COLLEGE READING SKILLS
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TEN STEPS to IMPROVING COLLEGE READING SKILLS
SIXTH EDITION TEN STEPS to IMPROVING COLLEGE READING SKILLS John Langan © Townsend Press

1 Critical Reading

CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Skilled readers are those who can recognize an author’s point and the support for that point. Critical readers are those who can evaluate an author’s support for a point and determine whether that support is solid or not. See page 399 in textbook.

Separating fact from opinion
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading This chapter will extend your ability to read critically in three ways: Separating fact from opinion Detecting propaganda See page 399 in textbook. Recognizing errors in reasoning

Separating Fact from Opinion
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion See page 399 in textbook.

Separating Fact from Opinion Fact A fact is information that can be proved true through objective evidence. This evidence may be physical proof or the spoken or written testimony of witnesses. See page 400 in textbook.

The Quad Tower is the tallest building in this city.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact Here is a statement that is a fact. The fact can be checked for accuracy and thus proved true. The Quad Tower is the tallest building in this city. See page 400 in textbook. A researcher could go out and, through inspection, confirm that the building is the tallest.

Here is another statement of fact.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact Here is another statement of fact. Albert Einstein willed his violin to his grandson. See pages 400–401 in textbook. This statement can be checked in historical publications or with Einstein’s estate.

Separating Fact from Opinion Opinion An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion that cannot be objectively proved true. As a result, it is open to question. See page 400 in textbook.

Here is a statement that is an opinion:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion Here is a statement that is an opinion: The Quad Tower is the ugliest building in the city. See page 400 in textbook. There’s no way to prove this statement because two people can look at the same building and come to different conclusions about its beauty.

The Quad Tower is the ugliest building in the city.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion The Quad Tower is the ugliest building in the city. See page 400 in textbook. Ugly is a value word, a word we use to express a value judgment. Value or judgment words are signals that an opinion is being expressed. By their very nature, these words represent opinions, not facts.

Here is another opinion:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion Here is another opinion: Einstein should have willed his violin to a museum. See page 400 in textbook. Who says? Not the grandson he willed the violin to. This is an opinion.

Separating Fact from Opinion See pages 400–401 in textbook. Answer: The first four lines are facts. The last line is an opinion. The next slides show and explain the answer. Photo courtesy of John Langan Which statements on this gravestone are facts? Which one is an opinion?

The statements about the woman’s birth and death and
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Facts See pages 400–401 in textbook. Photo courtesy of John Langan The statements about the woman’s birth and death and so forth are facts that can be confirmed.

Separating Fact from Opinion Facts Opinion See pages 400–401 in textbook. Photo courtesy of John Langan Although her relatives may hope that she is “sweetly sleeping,” there is no way they can know and confirm this. It is an opinion.

Five Points about Fact and Opinion
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion Five Points about Fact and Opinion 1 Statements of fact may be found to be untrue. Facts can turn out to be errors, not facts. It is not unusual for evidence to show that a “fact” is not really true. For example, it was once considered to be a fact that the world was flat, but that “fact” turned out to be an error. See page 403 in textbook.

2 Value words (ones that contain a judgment) often represent opinions.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion 2 Value words (ones that contain a judgment) often represent opinions. Examples of Value Words See page 403 in textbook.

For example, the observation that it is raining outside
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion 2 Value words Value words often express judgments—they are generally subjective, not objective. While factual statements report on observed reality, subjective statements interpret reality. For example, the observation that it is raining outside is an objective one. The statement that the weather is bad, however, is subjective, an evaluation of reality. (Some people—for example, farmers whose crops need water—consider rain to be good weather.) See page 403 in textbook.

3 The words should and ought to often signal opinions.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion 3 The words should and ought to often signal opinions. Those words introduce what some people think should, or ought to, be done. Other people may disagree. Examples Couples should definitely not live together before marriage. See page 403 in textbook. Couples ought to live together before getting married to be sure they are compatible.

4 Don’t mistake widely held opinions for facts.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion 4 Don’t mistake widely held opinions for facts. Much information that sounds factual is really opinion. An ad may claim that a particular automobile is “the most economical car on the road today,” a statement that at first seems factual. But what is meant by economical? If the car offers the most miles per gallon but the worst record for expensive repairs, you might not agree that it’s economical. See pages 403–404 in textbook.

5 Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact and opinion.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion 5 Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact and opinion. Our job is to draw upon existing fact and opinion and to arrive at an informed opinion. The reality is that most of what matters in life is very complex and cannot be separated into simple fact and opinion. Our challenge always is to arrive at the best possible informed opinion. See page 404 in textbook.

Fact and Opinion in Reading
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Fact and Opinion in Reading In general, textbook authors try to be as factual as possible. On the other hand, many essays, editorials, political speeches, and advertisements may contain facts, but those facts are often carefully selected to back up the authors’ opinions. See page 404 in textbook.

Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? A. Last night, a tree outside our house was struck by lightning. B. The waiters at that restaurant are rude, and the food costs twice as much as it’s worth. See pages 404–405 in textbook. Answer: A is fact; B is opinion The next slides show and explain the answer.

CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? A. Last night, a tree outside our house was struck by lightning. B. The waiters at that restaurant are rude, and the food costs twice as much as it’s worth. Statement A is a statement of fact. You and your family might have seen or heard the lightning strike, or you could go outside later and see the type of damage done to the tree. See pages 404–405 in textbook.

CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? A. Last night, a tree outside our house was struck by lightning. B. The waiters at that restaurant are rude, and the food costs twice as much as it’s worth. Statement A is a statement of fact. You and your family might have seen or heard the lightning strike, or you could go outside later and see the type of damage done to the tree. See pages 404–405 in textbook. Statement B is an opinion. Not every customer is likely to agree that all the waiters are rude and that the food is overpriced. The word rude is a value word.

CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and opinion? A. There is nothing like a bottle of Coca-Cola to satisfy thirst. B. In the late 1890s, when Coke was first sold, it included a small amount of cocaine, which was then legal. C. One of the most delicious of soft drinks, Coca-Cola was first intended to cure various ills, including headaches. See pages 404–405 in textbook. Answer: B is fact; A is opinion; C is fact and opinion The next slides show and explain the answer.

CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and opinion? A. There is nothing like a bottle of Coca-Cola to satisfy thirst. B. In the late 1890s, when Coke was first sold, it included a small amount of cocaine, which was then legal. C. One of the most delicious of soft drinks, Coca-Cola was first intended to cure various ills, including headaches. All the details in statement B are facts that can be looked up and confirmed in historical records. See pages 404–405 in textbook.

CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and opinion? A. There is nothing like a bottle of Coca-Cola to satisfy thirst. B. In the late 1890s, when Coke was first sold, it included a small amount of cocaine, which was then legal. C. One of the most delicious of soft drinks, Coca-Cola was first intended to cure various ills, including headaches. All the details in statement B are facts that can be looked up and confirmed in historical records. See pages 404–405 in textbook. Statement A is an opinion. Many people might prefer cold water or some other drink as a thirst-quencher.

CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and opinion? A. There is nothing like a bottle of Coca-Cola to satisfy thirst. B. In the late 1890s, when Coke was first sold, it included a small amount of cocaine, which was then legal. C. One of the most delicious of soft drinks, Coca-Cola was first intended to cure various ills, including headaches. All the details in statement B are facts that can be looked up and confirmed in historical records. See pages 404–405 in textbook. Statement A is an opinion. Many people might prefer cold water or some other drink as a thirst-quencher. The first part of the statement is an opinion—not everyone would consider Coke delicious (a value word.) The second part of the statement is a fact that could be confirmed by researching historical records of the time.

Fact, Opinion or Both? German shepherds are the scariest dogs alive.

The dog that bites people the most often, according to a 27-year-old study, is the German Shepherd.

German Shepherds, which always make poor pets, are used in police work and as guide dogs for the blind.

Smoking has been found to be one cause of lung cancer.

Executives of corporations that pollute the environment should be jailed.

According to scientists, all the water on Earth has been recycled for millions of years, and we drink the same water as the dinosaurs did.

Because many studies have concluded that smoking is a health hazard, cigarettes should be banned.

Scientists predict that one-third of the people who begin smoking under the age of 18 will die prematurely because of their habit.

There’s no illness harder to cope with than depression.

Depression is most common among persons between the ages of 25 and 44.

Practice on Your Own Review Test 2 – p. 420

Review Test 2 Answers 1. O 2. F 3. F 4. O 5. O 6. F&O 7. F 8. O 9. F

More Fact & Opinion Practice
Mastery Test 1 – p Mastery Test 2 – p

Mastery Test 1 Answers 1. O 11. O 2. F 12. O 3. O 13. O 4. F 14. F

Mastery Test 2 Answers 1. F 11. O 2. O 12. F 3. O 13. F 4. F 14. F+O

Detecting Propaganda CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
See page 407 in textbook.

Detecting Propaganda Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,” “Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.” See page 407 in textbook.

Detecting Propaganda Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,” “Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.” Often, they lack adequate factual support for their points, so they appeal to our emotions by using propaganda techniques. Part of being a critical reader is having the ability to recognize these propaganda techniques for the emotional fluff that they are. See page 407 in textbook.

This section will introduce you to six common propaganda techniques:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda This section will introduce you to six common propaganda techniques: Bandwagon Plain Folks Testimonial Name Calling Transfer Glittering Generalities See page 407 in textbook. There are other propaganda techniques, but these six are among the most common. They all use emotional appeals to distract from the fact they are not providing solid evidence to support their points.

The bandwagon technique tells us to buy a product
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 1 Bandwagon The bandwagon technique tells us to buy a product or support a certain issue because, in effect, “everybody else is doing it.” See pages 407–408 in textbook.

Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon Here are two examples of real TV ads that have used the bandwagon appeal: With appealing music in the background, flashing scenes show many people wearing the sponsor’s jeans. On a beautiful day, almost everyone on the beach leaves in a hurry in order to attend the sponsor’s sale. See pages 407–408 in textbook. The ads imply that if you don’t jump on the bandwagon, the parade will pass you by.

Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal? A. A famous actress explains that she loves to use a certain hair coloring B. A cable company claims that more and more people are switching to it to access the Internet. See pages 407–408 in textbook. Answer: B The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal? A. A famous actress explains that she loves to use a certain hair coloring B. A cable company claims that more and more people are switching to it to access the Internet. See pages 407–408 in textbook. The words more and more people suggest that you had better switch too, or you’ll be left behind.

Detecting Propaganda 2 Testimonial The idea behind the testimonial approach is that the testimony of famous people influences the viewers that admire these people. See page 408 in textbook.

Here are two examples of real ads that use the appeal of testimonials:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial Here are two examples of real ads that use the appeal of testimonials: An actor promotes a product intended to help a man’s sexual performance. Popular country singers speak out on behalf of certain political candidates. See page 408 in textbook. The fame of the actor is intended to influence men to use the product. Similarly, the fame of the popular singers is intended to influence us vote for those candidates.

Which ad below uses a testimonial?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial Which ad below uses a testimonial? A. An ad for a new movie shows people waiting to buy tickets in a line that extends halfway around the block. B. A sports star praises the brand of sneakers he is putting on. See page 408 in textbook. Answer: B The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which ad below uses a testimonial?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial Which ad below uses a testimonial? A. An ad for a new movie shows people waiting to buy tickets in a line that extends halfway around the block. B. A sports star praises the brand of sneakers he is putting on. B is a testimonial because a “sport star” is endorsing the sneakers. See page 408 in textbook.

Detecting Propaganda 3 Transfer The most common type of propaganda technique is transfer, in which products or candidates try to associate themselves with something that people admire or love. See pages 408–409 in textbook.

Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer The picture you saw at the beginning of this section is an example of transfer. See pages 408–409 in textbook. The candidate is hoping that the positive feelings we have toward the sexy-looking beauty queen and the patriotism stirred in us by the American flag and the U.S.A. banner will be transferred to him and get us to vote for him.

Here are two examples of real ads that use the appeal of tranfer:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer Here are two examples of real ads that use the appeal of tranfer: A beautiful woman in a slinky red dress is shown driving the sponsor’s car. A hospital chain uses a portrait of Benjamin Franklin in its ads and claims that it, like Franklin, stands for new ideas. See pages 408–409 in textbook. The sponsor hopes we will tranfer the positive feelings we have toward the beautiful woman to their car. Similarly, hospital chain hopes we will transfer our positive feelings about the famous inventor and American patriot Ben Franklin to their hospitals.

Which ad below uses transfer?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer Which ad below uses transfer? A. With the tune of “God Bless America” in the background, an announcer asks viewers to support the home baseball team by coming out to games. B. A world-famous bike rider and cancer survivor appears in an ad for a company that sells anti-cancer medications. See pages 408–409 in textbook. Answer: A The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which ad below uses transfer?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer Which ad below uses transfer? A. With the tune of “God Bless America” in the background, an announcer asks viewers to support the home baseball team by coming out to games. B. A world-famous bike rider and cancer survivor appears in an ad for a company that sells anti-cancer medications. See pages 408–409 in textbook. The use of “God Bless America” signals the transfer technique.

Political candidates often use the plain folks technique. Similarly,
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 4 Plain Folks In the plain folks technique, powerful people present themselves as ordinary, average citizens. Political candidates often use the plain folks technique. Similarly, the presidents of some companies appear in their own ads, trying to show that their giant corporations are just family businesses run by ordinary folks. See page 409 in textbook.

Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks Here are two examples of real ads that have used the appeal of plain folks: Average-looking American kids are shown at home trying and enjoying a cereal. A president of an insurance company is shown with his family, talking about his concern for their safety and well-being if he should not be there some day. See page 409 in textbook. In the first ad, the cereal company wants to show us that its product is enjoyed by average kids just like ours. In the second ad, the president of the insurance company wants us to see that he’s just an average guy who worries about the well-being of his family just like we do.

Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks Which ad below uses a plain folks approach? A. A very attractive young woman wraps herself in a robe that has been washed in a particular brand of laundry detergent. B. A grandmother, serving a canned vegetable soup to her grandson, says, “This has all the simple, healthy, and delicious ingredients I use in my own vegetable soup.” See page 409 in textbook. Answer: B The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks Which ad below uses a plain folks approach? A. A very attractive young woman wraps herself in a robe that has been washed in a particular brand of laundry detergent. B. A grandmother, serving a canned vegetable soup to her grandson, says, “This has all the simple, healthy, and delicious ingredients I use in my own vegetable soup.” The grandmother and grandson suggest that the soup is made and eaten by regular people who cook at home. See page 409 in textbook.

A rival product, candidate, or movement.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 5 Name Calling Name calling is the use of emotionally loaded language or negative comments to turn people against A rival product, candidate, or movement. See page 410 in textbook.

Here are two examples of name calling taken from real life:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling Here are two examples of name calling taken from real life: The fast-food industry labels critics of their industry as “food police,” “cookie cops,” and “the grease Gestapo.” During a taste test, consumers described the other leading brand of spaghetti sauce as “too salty” and “thin and tasteless.” See page 410 in textbook. Saying the critics are “food police,” “cookie cops,” and “the grease Gestapo” is name calling. So is saying the sauce is “thin and tasteless.”

Which ad below uses name calling?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling Which ad below uses name calling? A. An ad for hard liquor shows a beautiful woman in a strapless gown having a drink and being admired by several handsome men. B. “My opponent has lived in our state for only two years,” says a candidate for state senator. “Let’s not put an outsider into state office.” See page 410 in textbook. Answer: B The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which ad below uses name calling?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling Which ad below uses name calling? A. An ad for hard liquor shows a beautiful woman in a strapless gown having a drink and being admired by several handsome men. B. “My opponent has lived in our state for only two years,” says a candidate for state senator. “Let’s not put an outsider into state office.” See page 410 in textbook. Calling the oponent an outsider when he or she has lived in the state two years is name calling.

6 Glittering Generalities
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 6 Glittering Generalities A glittering generality is an important-sounding but unspecific claim about some product, candidate, or cause. It cannot be proved true or false because no evidence is offered to support the claim. See page 410 in textbook.

Here are two examples from real ads that use glittering generalities:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities Here are two examples from real ads that use glittering generalities: A store ad claims, “Fashions that will bring out the rainbow in you.” A canned-food ad boasts of “nutrition for today.” The statement bring out the rainbow in you but tells us nothing about the clothing. Similarly the words nutrition for today tell us nothing about the food. See page 410 in textbook.

Which ad below uses a glittering generality?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities Which ad below uses a glittering generality? A. “Ed Dalton—a candidate that really cares,” says the announcer. B. A well-known athlete says he uses a certain kind of aspirin. See page 410 in textbook. Answer: A The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which ad below uses a glittering generality?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities Which ad below uses a glittering generality? A. “Ed Dalton—a candidate that really cares,” says the announcer. B. A well-known athlete says he uses a certain kind of aspirin. The words really cares tell us nothing about Ed Dalton. See page 410 in textbook.

Kiddy Kare is the largest daycare center in town
A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities Kiddy Kare is the largest daycare center in town Our competitor’s daycare center is more concerned about profits than about children.

Sureguard sunglasses filter out harmful ultraviolet rays.
A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities Sureguard sunglasses filter out harmful ultraviolet rays. “I’m proud to wear Sureguard sunglasses,” says actress Jennifer Barnes. “You’ll love them too.”

A. Bandwagon. B. Testimonial. C. Transfer. D. Plain Folks. E
A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities In a recent election poll, Margo Levy was ahead of the other candidate. Add your vote to the landslide victory Margo Levy will win in next week’s election.

Twin Oaks is a residential development near Des Moines, Iowa.
A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities Twin Oaks is a residential development near Des Moines, Iowa. There’s nothing else quite like Twin Oaks, a great residential community where you will be proud to live.

A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities As a young man, candidate Alan Wilson had a variety of jobs working in a department store and in his family’s TV station. As a young man, candidate Alan Wilson learned what it means to work hard by spending long hours lifting boxes and sweeping floors.

A college degree opens up job doors.
A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities A college degree opens up job doors. Comedian Jerry Klein says, “A college degree opens up job doors.”

A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities I’m voting for Jones because he has had 10 years of experience on the Senate’s Committee on International Affairs. I’ll bet my French poodle and German Shepherd know more about foreign affairs than Smith does. My vote goes to Jones.

Markey’s Used Cars will be open on the 4th of July.
A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities Markey’s Used Cars will be open on the 4th of July. A patriotic march plays, and a giant American flag waves over a used-car lot. “Celebrate your freedom of choice on the 4th of July!” says the announcer. “At Markey’s, we’ll honor the holiday by making some star-spangled deals.”

The presidential candidate supports our country’s farmers.
A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities The presidential candidate supports our country’s farmers. The presidential candidate has her own small farm, so she knows the farmers’ concerns.

A. Bandwagon B. Testimonial C. Transfer D. Plain Folks E. Name Calling F. Glittering Generalities At Triple-A Technical School, you can learn the skills needed to become a plumber, mechanic or electrician. Set the world on fire with skills you learn at Triple-A Technical School!

Practice on Your Own Review Test 3 – p. 421 (Part A Only)

Review Test 3, Part A Answers
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. B 5. A

More Propaganda Practice

Mastery Test 3 Answers 1. A 2. D 3. B 4. D 5. B 6. C 7. C 8. F 9. A

Mastery Test 4 Answers 1. B 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. D 6. C 7. F 8. F 9. C

Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda Recognizing Errors in Reasoning Fallacies are errors in reasoning that take the place of the real support needed in an argument. The result is a poorly supported argument. See page 412 in textbook.

A valid point is based on a rock-like foundation of solid support.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning See page 412 in textbook. A valid point is based on a rock-like foundation of solid support. A fallacious point is based on a house of cards that offers no real support at all.

based on insufficient evidence is to make a hasty generalization.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning You have already seen two common fallacies that were discussed in Chapter 9, “Argument”: Changing the subject distracts us from the issue by presenting irrelevant support—evidence that actually has nothing to do with the argument. Hasty generalization is a fallacy in which a point has inadequate support. Drawing a conclusion based on insufficient evidence is to make a hasty generalization. See page 412 in textbook.

This section will introduce you to six other common fallacies:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning This section will introduce you to six other common fallacies: Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Circular Reasoning Personal Attack Straw Man Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue False Cause See page 413 in textbook. False Comparison Either-Or In all of these fallacies, a point is argued, but no true support is offered for that point.

Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Circular Reasoning Part of a point cannot reasonably be used as evidence to support it. The fallacy of including such illogical evidence is called circular reasoning or begging the question. See pages 413–414 in textbook.

Here is a simple example of such reasoning:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning Here is a simple example of such reasoning: Mr. Green is a great teacher because he is so wonderful at teaching. The supporting reason (“he is so wonderful at teaching”) is really the same as the conclusion (“Mr. Green is a great teacher”). No real reasons have been given—the statement has merely been repeated. See pages 413–414 in textbook.

Mr. Green is a great teacher he is so wonderful at teaching
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning Mr. Green is a great teacher he is so wonderful at teaching The supporting reason (“he is so wonderful at teaching”) is really the same as the conclusion (“Mr. Green is a great teacher”). No real reasons have been given—the statement has merely been repeated. See pages 413–414 in textbook.

Here is another example of such reasoning:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning Here is another example of such reasoning: Vitamins are healthful, for they improve your well-being. Can you spot the circular reasoning in this argument? See pages 413–414 in textbook. Answer: Healthful and well-being both convey the same idea. The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Vitamins are healthful, for they improve your well-being. healthful,
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning Vitamins are healthful, for they improve your well-being. healthful, well-being. The word healthful, which is used in the conclusion, conveys the same idea as well-being. We still don’t know why vitamins are good for us. See pages 413–414 in textbook.

Here is one more example of such reasoning:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning Here is one more example of such reasoning: Abortion is an evil practice because it is so wrong. Can you spot the circular reasoning in this argument? See pages 413–414 in textbook. Answer: Saying it is evil is the same as saying it is so wrong The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Abortion is an evil practice because it is so wrong. is an evil p t
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning Abortion is an evil practice because it is so wrong. is an evil p t is so wrong. The claim that abortion “is so wrong” simply restates the idea that it is an evil practice. No explanation is given for why abortion is evil or wrong. See pages 413–414 in textbook.

Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy? A. The government should lower our taxes because taxes are entirely too high. B. I’m not going to be paid what I’m worth until I get a boss who cares about being fair. See pages 413–414 in textbook. Answer: A The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy? A. The government should lower our taxes because taxes are entirely too high. B. I’m not going to be paid what I’m worth until I get a boss who cares about being fair. Saying that taxes are too high is merely a different way of saying that taxes should be lowered. See pages 413–414 in textbook.

Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Personal Attack This fallacy involves an unfair personal attack on an individual rather than on his or her public ideas. It ignores the issue under discussion and concentrates instead on the character of the opponent. See page 414 in textbook.

Here is an example of personal attack:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack Here is an example of personal attack: Senator Brill’s opinions on public housing are worthless. He can’t even manage to hold his own household together—he’s been married and divorced three times already. See page 414 in textbook. Senator Brill’s family life may or may not reflect a weakness in his character, but it has nothing to do with the value of his opinions on public housing.

Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack Sometimes personal attacks take the form of accusing people of taking a stand only because it will benefit them personally. For instance, here’s a personal attack on a congressman who is an outspoken member of the National Organization for Women (NOW): He doesn’t care about NOW. He supports it only in order to get more women to vote for him. This argument ignores the congressman’s detailed defense of NOW as an organization that promotes equal rights for both men and women. See page 414 in textbook.

Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy? A. Why support Ray O’Donnell’s highway safety proposal? He’s got the biggest collection of speeding tickets in the district. B. I feel my salary should be higher because it is so low. See page 414 in textbook. Answer: A The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy? A. Why support Ray O’Donnell’s highway safety proposal? He’s got the biggest collection of speeding tickets in the district. B. I feel my salary should be higher because it is so low. The statement attacks O’Donnell for his personal driving habits, not for his highway safety proposal. See page 414 in textbook.

Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Straw Man The straw man fallacy suggests that an opponent favors an obviously unpopular cause—when the opponent really doesn’t support anything of the kind. See pages 414–415 in textbook.

Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man Here is an example of straw man. It is a statement made during a debate on the death penalty. Ms. Collins opposes capital punishment. But letting murderers out on the street to kill again is a crazy idea. If we did that, no one would be safe. Ms. Collins, however, never advocated “letting murderers out on the street to kill again.” In fact, she wants to keep them in jail for life rather than execute them. See pages 414–415 in textbook.

Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy? A. The people who are in favor of gun control are obviously not concerned about criminals taking control of this fine country. B. Rose Curtis is a declared lesbian and should not be allowed to run for public office. See pages 414–415 in textbook. Answer: A The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy? A. The people who are in favor of gun control are obviously not concerned about criminals taking control of this fine country. B. Rose Curtis is a declared lesbian and should not be allowed to run for public office. There may be valid reasons for favoring gun control. It is unlikely that those who do are unconcerned about criminals taking over the country. See pages 414–415 in textbook.

Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue False Cause The fallacy of false cause occurs when one assumes that because event B follows event A, event B was caused by event A. See page 415 in textbook.

Consider this argument:
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause Consider this argument: The Macklin Company was more prosperous before Ms. Williams became president. Clearly, she is the cause of the decline. (Event A: Ms. Williams became president. Event B: The Macklin Company’s earnings declined.) See page 415 in textbook. However, Ms. Williams has been president for only a few months. What other possible causes could have been responsible for the decline?

(Event A: Ms. Williams became president.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause The Macklin Company was more prosperous before Ms. Williams became president. Clearly, she is the cause of the decline. (Event A: Ms. Williams became president. Event B: The Macklin Company’s earnings declined.) See page 415 in textbook. However, Ms. Williams has been president for only a few months. What other possible causes could have been responsible for the decline? Perhaps the policies of the previous president are just now affecting the company. Perhaps the market for the company’s product has changed.

(Event A: Ms. Williams became president.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause The Macklin Company was more prosperous before Ms. Williams became president. Clearly, she is the cause of the decline. (Event A: Ms. Williams became president. Event B: The Macklin Company’s earnings declined.) See page 415 in textbook. It’s easy but dangerous to assume that just because A came before B, A caused B.

Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause? A. I knew I shouldn’t have taken the baby to the park today. Now he’s got a cold. B. Of course the legalization of prostitution will work in America. It has worked in European countries, hasn’t it? See page 415 in textbook. Answer: A The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause? A. I knew I shouldn’t have taken the baby to the park today. Now he’s got a cold. B. Of course the legalization of prostitution will work in America. It has worked in European countries, hasn’t it? There are many ways the baby could have caught a cold besides being taken to the park. See page 415 in textbook.

Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue False Comparison In the error in reasoning known as false comparison, the assumption is that two things are more alike than they really are. See page 416 in textbook.

CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison Consider this argument: It didn’t hurt your grandfather to get to work without a car, and it won’t hurt you either. To judge whether or not this is a false comparison, consider how the two situations are alike and how they differ. See page 416 in textbook.

Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison It didn’t hurt your grandfather to get to work without a car, and it won’t hurt you either. They are similar in that both involve a young person’s need to get to work. But the situations are different in that the grandfather didn’t have to be at work an hour after his last class. In fact, he didn’t go to school at all. In addition, his family didn’t own a car he could use. See page 416 in textbook.

Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison It didn’t hurt your grandfather to get to work without a car, and it won’t hurt you either. The differences in this case are more important than the similarities, making it a false comparison. See page 416 in textbook.

Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison? A. After visiting Hal today, I came home with a headache. I must be allergic to his dog. B. I don’t know why you’re so worried about my grades. Albert Einstein had lousy grades in high school, and he did all right. See page 416 in textbook. Answer: B The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison? A. After visiting Hal today, I came home with a headache. I must be allergic to his dog. B. I don’t know why you’re so worried about my grades. Albert Einstein had lousy grades in high school, and he did all right. There are many differences between Albert Einstein and the person making this statement. See page 416 in textbook.

Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue Either-Or It is often wrong to assume that there are only two sides to a question. Offering only two choices when more actually exist is an either-or fallacy. While some issues have only two sides, most have several. See page 416 in textbook.

CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or Consider this argument: People opposed to unrestricted free speech are really in favor of censorship. This argument ignores the fact that a person could believe in free speech as well as in laws that prohibit slander or that punish someone for falsely yelling “Fire!” in a crowded theater. See page 416 in textbook.

Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy? A. School prayer is a positive force in parochial schools, so why not try it in our public schools? B. If you don’t study at least three hours a night, you’re not really serious about being in college. See page 416 in textbook. Answer: B The next slide shows and explains the answer.

Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy?
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy? A. School prayer is a positive force in parochial schools, so why not try it in our public schools? B. If you don’t study at least three hours a night, you’re not really serious about being in college. There maybe other reasons for not studying three hours a night besides not being serious about college. For example, a student might have to work at night to pay for college. See page 416 in textbook.

A. Circular Reasoning B. Personal Attack C. Straw Man
Supporters of state lotteries apparently don’t think people should work hard for what they get. They believe it’s better to get something for nothing.

Earl will make a lousy class treasurer because he’s just a conceited jerk.

Pollution is wrong because it dirties the environment.

Mr. Vincent supports sex education in junior high school. Maybe he thinks it’s okay for 13-year-olds to be having babies, but I don’t agree.

Watering new grass is important, since new lawns need a lot of water.

A. False Cause B. False Comparison C. Either-Or
Stay away from Gary’s filthy dorm room. After the last time I went there to study, I actually got a rash.

Did you tell the boss off, or did you act like a wimp and agree?

There’s a sign in the dorm lounge saying that excessive alcohol is dangerous. Well, so what? Too much pizza can be dangerous, too.

Do you always tell the truth, or are you a liar?

Last time there was an eclipse, the stock market went down. I’m going to sell all my stock before next week’s eclipse takes place.

Practice on Your Own Review Test 3 – Part B – p. 422

Review Test 3 Part B Answers
8. C 9. A 10. B

More Reasoning Errors Practice

Mastery Test 5 Answers 1. B 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. C 7. B 8. A 9. C

Mastery Test 6 Answers 1. C 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. C 6. A 7. C 8. B 9. A

See page 418 in textbook.

TEN STEPS to IMPROVING COLLEGE READING SKILLS

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