1. The Nigerian State

2. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power Since 1960, neither leaders or citizens can decide on how the country should be governed. “National Question”- How should Nigeria be governed and should it remain as one nation? Constitutionalism: The acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles. 8 constitutions have been written- often suspended. 1914- 1 st constitution 1999- Most recent and heavily amended.

3. Legitimacy Government legitimacy: Priority “National Question”? Plagued with Fragmentation: tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional, or religious lines. Moved Capital to center of the country to alleviate regional tensions Military: One of the few national organizations- source of stability. Corrupt leaders: General Ibrahim Babangida (1985- 1993) and General Sani Abacha (1993-1998). Citizens have little faith in leaders. Flawed 2007 election.

4. Political and Economic Change Since 1960: Series of regime turnovers- From military coups to federal democracies. Parliamentary system to a Presidential System. All Military dictators promised to transfer power to civilian hands. Power in the hands of elites. Fraudulent Elections.

5. Citizens, Society, and the State Democratization not easy- Challenges: Poverty: 60% below poverty line. Large gap between rich and poor: (Mexico) Low economic growth. Health Issues: HIV/AIDS- 1 in 11 AIDS sufferers in the world lives in Nigeria. Literacy: Below world average of 87%.

6. Cleavages Similar to Russia- Ethnically-based civil wars. Chechnya Conflict and Biafran Civil War. Undermined legitimacy of the government.

7. Cleavages Ethnicity: between 250-400 ethnic groups; variety of religions, and languages. Live in separate enclaves. Religion: China/Russia communism controlled ethnic tensions with a unifying ideology. Nigeria has no unifying ideology. Sharia law? Region/north vs. south: 1955- 3 regions/Christians in the south, Muslins in the north. Urban/rural differences: Political organizations and interest groups found in cities, greater participation. Social class: Social division runs deep. Wealthy own resources and control the government.

8. Patron-Clientelism (Perbendalism) Prebendalism: Max Weber: personalized system of rule in which all public offices are treated as personal fiefdoms. Rural areas. Fosters corruption.

9. Civil Society and Voting Behavior 1999: Civil society has strengthened. Trade unions and professional organizations. National Union for petroleum and Gas workers (NUPENG). 1959: First national elections. Many elections canceled or postponed. Numerous political parties form around charismatic figure (no party loyalty). 1999: Local, state and national elections held, many were fraudulent- participant rates unreliable.

10. Attitudes Toward Government Most distrust government. General Abacha. Skeptical about democracy. Do not believe elections are fair. Changing? “Nigerian” identity?

11. Protests, Participation, and Social Movements Democracy since 1999: Brought ethnic- based and religious movements to address grievances. International oil companies- targets. (Niger Delta) Challenge for new president Yar’ Adua.

12. Linkage Institutions Political Parties: Regionally and Ethnically based. Factionalism led to multiparty system: 1.The People’s Democratic Party (PDP) 1998: Supported Olusegun Obasanjo (Christian) and Umaru Yar’ Adua (Muslim). Gained majority of National Assembly. 2.All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP): Candidate in 2003 won 23%, 19% in 2007. (Buhari) 3.Action Congress (AC): Merged in 2006 with many minor parties. 2007 won 7% (Abubakar) Trend: Parties drawing to many ethnic groups; elections still fraudulent and violent-difficult to claim legitimacy.

13. Elections and Electoral Procedures Citizens vote on 3 levels: local, state, and national 1.National Elections: President, representatives to the House of Representatives, and senators from their states Presidential elections: Candidate must receive an outright majority, or a second election may take place. Legislative elections: Senate has 109 seats, 3 from each of the 36 states and one from the federal capital. Elected by direct popular vote. 360 representatives are elected from single member districts by plurality vote. No run-offs. Regional representation with ethnicities trying to form coalitions. Weak.

14. Elections and Electoral Procedures Election Fraud Sustained 3 popular elections in a row. 2003 election: Observers saw ballot boxes being vandalized, stolen, and stuffed with fraudulent votes. 20 deaths. Independent National Electoral Commission disqualified 6 million names. 2007 election was worse: Many ballots had only symbols, not names, ballot-box theft, long delays in the delivery of ballots and a shortage of ballots. Unused ballots were marked and stuffed. 200 deaths.

15. Interest Groups Play an important role. Based on religion. (Christian Association of Nigeria) Labor Unions: Independent and Powerful before 1980s. Corporatism or government approved interest groups, limited their power. 2007 Nigeria Labor Congress organized a strike of city workers against raising oil prices for Nigerian’s. (subsidized) Student Groups. Populist Groups: Human Rights groups Business Interests: Work in collaboration with Military leaders. Corrupt. Some businesses have operated outside the government influence in the private sector.

16. Mass Media Well-developed, independent press. (in comparison to other developing nations) Reflect ethnic/regional divisions. Most outspoken newspapers in the south. Radio is the main source of information. Newspapers and TV in the cities. All 36 states run their own radio stations.

17. Political Institutions Federal, Presidential Model Executive Branch: Powerful President – 1.Popularly elected. 2.Head of state and government. 3.4 year terms, maximum of two terms. 4.Oversees day to day operations of the government and the military. 5.Appoints government ministers (after confirmation of the Senate) and assure that they come from all 36 states. The Federal Executive Committee (president and ministers) assures that enacted laws are properly implemented throughout the country. 6.The VP assists the president in all tasks and is nominated by the presidential candidate as his running mate.

18. The Legislature National Assembly: Bicameral. Senate: 109 members 3 reps from each state and one from the Federal Territory, Abuja. House of Representatives: 360 members. Members from both houses serve 4 year terms and are popularly elected. Pass laws for the assent by the president. Either house may originate legislation, but must pass both houses and the president before law is official. Low representation of women: 6.4% in the House and 3.7% in the Senate. Only recently, checks the power of the president.

19. The Judicial Branch Interprets the laws in accordance with the constitution. Judicial Review exists in theory. Single unified federal and state court system. Sharia courts may coexist at the state level: Complicates the system. Supreme Court: Highest Court. Election Tribunals. Supreme Court-Highest Court in the land. Court of Appeals.

20. State/Local Governments All 36 states have a popularly elected governor that serves 4 year terms Unicameral State House Assembly Representatives are elected for 4 year terms from local government areas The number of House Assembly Members in each state is comprised of 3 times the number of seats it has in the House of Representatives 774 Local governments-each comprising of a chairman and elected councilors

21. The Military Seen as a disciplined organization with the capacity to make decisions efficiently and effectively. By becoming active in political affairs, the military lost its credibility as a temporary, objective organization that keeps order and brings stability National character-all regions/ethnic groups The best and brightest join (Muslim’s especially) Generals had the ability to keep control of the government Fragile Democracy

22. The Bureaucracy Source of employment Replaced British and Indians after Independence Mostly from the South Oil revenues allowed increase in bureaucracy Access to oil revenues, coupled with political instability led to corruption. Trend difficult to reverse. Para-statals: Many companies owned by the Nigerian government (provide social and welfare services, utilities) and are not efficient. Corporatism occurs when the government chooses para-statals to provide political input. State controls private interests as well. Disband the system in order for democracy to survive?

23. Public Policy Military rule: Top-down policymaking process. Power concentrated in the presidency. Input comes to the president through patron clientelism. “Loyalty pyramid”. Receive spoils. Rule based on self-interest. Began in colonial times. Must shift to ideology based on the welfare of the people.

24. Economic Issues Loyalty Pyramids squandered Nigeria’s wealth Dependent upon oil reserves- Feeds corrupt system At Independence-Self Sufficient food supply, developed transportation system, produced and exported a variety of agricultural products. 1970’s, developed large scale industries, did not diversify the economy nor maintain infrastructure 2001, implemented revenue sharing by pooling oil revenues and dispersing those revenues throughout the country. Lack of faith in the government caused widespread protests in the south. Wasn’t implemented.

25. Structural Adjustment Oil prices plummet in the 1980’s, Nigeria unprepared. (Mexico) Owed large sums to IMF and World Bank Structural Adjustment: Shock Treatment- Tried to diversify the economy, reduce government spending, privatize para- statals Terms of IMF and World Bank difficult to implement Huge national debt

26. Oil State: Role is to control the nation’s revenues and in spending earnings, or rents, which come from oil. Rent-seeking behavior: Communities, individuals, and groups compete for profits. All controlled by the government. Most Nigerians do not have access to rents, and participate in the informal economy (unreported incomes from small-scale trade and subsistence farming)

27. Federalism Positive impact. Power is shared. Greater political participation. Backed by the constitution President must receive 25% of the vote in 2/3 of the regions Negative: Promote corruption, Rent- seeking behavior

28. Sings of Democratization Some checks and balances between government branches: Legislature rejected Obasanjo’s attempt to change the constitution to allow him to run for a third term. Some independent decisions in the courts: Abubakar was allowed to run for president. Revival of civil society. Independent media. A peaceful succession of power: Two civilians in a row Improving Freedom House Scores: Currently, partly free.

29. Major Public policy Challenges 1.Economic and Political Reform 2.Oil and the Environment 3.Ethnic/Religious Tensions and Human Rights 4.Civil Military Relations 5.HIV/AIDS 6.Regional Instability