1. Techniques for Decision-Making: Data Visualization Sam Affolter

2. Application of Diagrams Mapping the Business Relationship and Influence Thinking about Causation Theory and pitfalls Gantt Charts (given time)

3. Diagrams are meant to help us think about issues around us. Diagrams help simplify, useful in – Problem solving: identifying problems, root causing, seeing systems holistically – Communicating: use diagrams to give others high level understanding, combine different perspectives, etc. – Making changes: developing current state and proposed state diagrams helps to identify opportunities and needs – Coping with information overload: diagrams help simplify complex systems/situations

5. System maps are meant to orient the user to the features of the system. Everything in a system is connected A system does something Systems have a boundary and an environment The system is defined by your interest Systems and subsystems (elements)

6. Hospital Trusts Private Hospitals Patients’ Families Patients’ Employment/ Unemployment Ambulance Service National Health Departments Local Health Programs Records Funding GPs Patients Nurses Specialists Insurance Companies

7. It only shows relative position of components No lines of influence, relationship, or cause are to be included The system boundary is conceptual, not physical The way sub-systems and elements are shown depend on the diagrammer’s perspective It is a snapshot in time and not predictive of what may happen in the future

8. Keep the map as simple as possible to aid clarity. The scale and the detail depend on the purpose of the system map. All boundaries and subsystems need to be clearly identified. In changing a system, we have to draw the existing real-life system and the new system we wish it to be.

9. Create a system map of a department or organization. Use it to answer some of the following questions. Who within the boundary has control over the components in the system? What would happen to the department/organization if one of the sub-systems/elements were moved outside the boundary? What changes could be made to the map that would promise improvement? Discuss in groups and vote on an individual to share

11. Relationship Diagrams are meant to show the connections between components of a system The relationships reflect the diagrammer’s perspective of reality. Thickness of lines reflect strength of relationship. Dotted lines represent unknown relationship.

13. No arrows are used to show direction of influence Avoid grouping components Many patterns of components are possible, dependent upon a person’s perspective Use a title to clearly communicate the type of diagram as well as the subject Give non-animate components a function.

14. Shows where relationships exist and where they don’t when they should, nothing more. The components of the diagram need to have their functions made clear. The possibility of arriving at different patterns of relationships should be seen as an opportunity to prompt further thinking.

15. Tree diagrams are a natural extension of Relationship diagrams, with the only change that all relations are hierarchical in nature. There is an “If A, Then B” order to the diagrams Objectives should be measureable (always as “How can/should I measure that”) You can grow the tree further by listing out advantages and disadvantages under each option

19. Where objectives are used it is critical that the key objective is clearly defined and valid. Objectives must be measurable! Logical functions of AND and OR can be used to develop processes (particularly useful for Fault Trees) Fault Trees clarify symptoms, faults, and causes.

20. Where relationships are seen as linear or have a defined order, Tree diagrams provide the clearest picture. Tree diagrams are optimal when establishing objectives, showing relationships in an organization, or locating the cause of a problem. It may be useful to think of how family relationships are shown in a family tree and apply the same principle to any form of relationship.

21. Influence diagrams take other relationship diagrams one step further, embedding directional influence via arrows. Like relationship diagrams, thickness of line represents strength of influence. The arrow’s direction reflects the direction of the influence, from influencer to person/thing influenced.

24. Use arrows to show direction of influence, either as one-way or two-way Draw two arrows there different strengths of interaction need to be shown. Use varying thicknesses of arrows to show estimated comparative strength of influences The use of a boundary is optional

25. It is often useful to start with a System map, then build arrows of influence. Influence lines are also very useful in organizational tree diagrams. Look for components which are not influencing the rest of the diagram (‘tails’). Ask of these, “if there is no influence, why is it here?” Negative externalities often are ‘tails.’

26. Think of a situation you have faced where either you needed to clearly define the objective, or solve a problem. Create an objective/fault diagram detailing the issue. What is the key objective or symptom? What types of actions ought to be taken to reach the objective or resolve the problem? Discuss in groups and vote on an individual to share

27. Using the System Map developed in Exercise 1, create an Influence Diagram. Are there any relationships with the same level of influence in both directions? Differing? None? What types of changes might increase/decrease the level of influence between the system and factors in the outside environment? Discuss in groups and vote for someone to share

29. Causation is seldom a one way process, and usually hard to ferret out. To adequately describe something as the cause of something else requires consideration of multiple factors and multiple types of cause. Necessary cause: A must happen for B to occur Sufficient cause: If A happens, then B will occur Contributory cause: If A is combined with other causal factors, then B will occur Pay particular attention to closed loops within the system

31. All statements must be actions People/objects alone cannot be causal There needs to be an end point or termination that clearly shows what is being caused Arrows are one directional from cause to action being caused Multiple causes rarely occur in a straight linear way The title must give the type of diagram and the subject being caused

32. Useful in locating the cause or (more likely) causes of a given situation. Works well when attempting to communicate in situations where there is difficulty separating symptoms from causes. Invaluable when attempting to explain the reasons of a particular problem.

33. Highly related to the multiple cause diagram, the Fishbone, a.k.a. Ishikawa, diagram segments causes into their larger type. Ideal diagram for group work where individual team members can be assigned a major bone to fill in causal bones.

34. Define the problem clearly and place in the head. Brainstorm/Analyze major faults/errors and assign to each major bone Smaller bones represent the causes associated with each area Make sure the problem defined at the head is truly the root issue and not merely a symptom of a larger issue Search for common causes across the diagram

35. Useful in capturing, through one picture, all aspects of a particular problem Fishbone diagrams work well as an extension of prior Multiple Cause diagramming. It is easier to grasp causal relationships in Fishbone diagrams than MCDs. It is difficult to see closed loop and other holistic issues within Fishbone diagrams.

36. Using a process that you have worked on in the past, create a Multiple Cause diagram. Identify necessary, sufficient, and contributory causal relationships. Use signs to signify if the cause increases or reduces the action caused. Are there any closed loops within the process? Are they negative or positive? What could be done to eliminate or exacerbate the loops?

37. With MCD in hand, create a Fishbone diagram. Determine what the key problem is that you want to analyze. Large bones should be major faults, small bones are causes of these faults. Do any causes show up under multiple faults? How does your MCD compare with the Fishbone analysis? Is there information that presents itself more readily in one than the other?

39. Diagramming is useful in conceptualizing and simplifying essential information to reduce Info Overload Diagrams point to what is known and help identify unknowns The diagramming process can lead to questions about current systems

40. Diagrams presented go from general to greater specificity, from ‘what is the situation’ to practical problem solving. The basic rule to ask before beginning a diagram is, “What is my main concern here?” – What does the current state look like? System Map/Organizational Tree – How do things impact one another? Relational/Influence /Multiple Cause Diagram – What can be done about a problem? Objective Tree/Fault Tree/Fishbone Diagram

41. Inappropriate Claim: The act of diagramming does not, of itself, solve problems Over-elaboration: Expending effort on creativity rather than being clear and concise Over-simplification: While diagrams simplify a process/situation/system conceptually, this shouldn’t be taken to mean the system is simple in practice.