1. Chapter 11 Specific Learning Disabilities 11 Specific Learning Disabilities Barry W. Lavay C H A P T E R

2. Chapter Outline Definitions Causes Incident rates Common characteristics General educational approaches Guidelines for teaching physical education and sport

3. Assisting Calvin in PE Read the scenario of Calvin at the start of chapter 11. Identify behaviors and list key challenges that Calvin faces in Mr. Santos’ class. Based on these challenges, list and discuss teaching methods and programming strategies that Mr. Santos can use to help Calvin have a positive PE experience.

4. What Is Learning Disability? A disorder with these primary characteristics: Problems with written language and in mastering academic areas, particularly reading Can’t be caused by cultural differences, lack of educational opportunities, poverty, or other disabilities Inability to store, process, and produce information in the central nervous system Can’t be the result of other conditions but might coexist with other conditions, such as ADHD and DCD

5. Learning Disability Defined “Specific learning disability” means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that might manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of mental retardation; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (IDEA, 2004)

6. Unexpected Underachievement Educationally significant discrepancy exists between measured intellectual potential and actual academic achievement. Discrepancy means a difference between ability and actual achievement and is sometimes referred to as unexpected underachievement. Individual has normal intelligence (IQ). (continued)

7. Unexpected Underachievement (continued) Academic performance lags behind peers; does not perform at grade level. Difficulty learning in traditional ways. Summary: Influences how individuals learn and not how well they learn. (Kavale & Forness, 2000; Smith, 2007)

8. Learning Disability: The Hidden Disability No easily identifiable physical signs exist. Based on dysfunction to the CNS that is not visible. (continued)

9. Learning Disability: The Hidden Disability (continued) Difficulty with the following is a possible indication of a learning problem: —Remembering newly learned information —Expressing thoughts orally or in writing —Understanding information presented —Following directions and routines —Moving from one activity to the next Summary: Learning disabilities cannot be cured or go away and can present lifelong challenges to children and their families.

10. Individuals With Learning Disability and Coexisting Disabilities Many children with LD display comorbidity, meaning the disability coexists with other conditions: 1.Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 2.Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) ADHD and DCD alone are not recognized as distinct disability categories under IDEA; they do not qualify for special education services.

11. What Is ADHD? Children with ADHD are easily distracted by irrelevant stimuli and frequently shift from one incomplete activity to the next. Inattention occurs in academic, occupational, or social situations and is more difficult to observe than hyperactivity (APA, 2000). The condition is divided into three subtypes: 1.Combined type 2.Predominantly inattentive type 3.Predominantly hyperactive–impulsive type

12. What Is DCD? An individual’s performance in daily activities is substantially below that expected of age and IQ. The motor deficiency interferes with academic achievement activities of daily living. Motor deficiency can’t be caused by a general medical condition such as CP, MD, or PDD. If mental retardation is present, the motor difficulties must be in excess of those associated alone with this disability (APA, 2000). Summary: DCD is often operationalized as an individual being two standard deviations below age norms on a standardized motor test.

13. Suspected Causes of LD, ADHD, and DCD Complex, multidimensional, and the culmination of many problems: LD: The most common theory is that it is a neurological condition, such as the existence of CNS dysfunction in producing, processing, and storing information. ADHD: Many believe it to be primarily an interaction of neurological, genetic, and psychosocial factors (CHAAD, 2008).

14. Incidence of LD, ADHD, and DCD Learning disability (LD) Affects 40%-50%, or the largest special education category; 5%, or 2.9 million students. State-to-state and district-to-district statistics can vary, ranging from 1.7% to 5.8%. High percentage of children with LD, ranging from 25% to 50%, also display ADHD (CHADD, 2008). (continued)

15. Incidence of LD, ADHD, and DCD (continued) Attention deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD) Affects 3% to 7% of school-aged children, with estimates reported as high as 20% (APA, 2000). Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) Affects as many as 6% of children aged 6 to 11 years (APA, 2000).

16. Teaching Physical Education to Children With a Specific LD, ADHD, or DCD

17. Characteristics Presenting Unique Challenges to LD, ADHD, and DCD Heterogeneous group. Movement characteristics or behaviors vary from skilled movers to developmental delays. Exhibit a wide range of physical, cognitive, and social behaviors that affect movement. Common physical, cognitive, and social characteristics are described on page 222.

18. Unique Behaviors and Programming Consider the wide spectrum of behaviors for individuals with LD, ADHD, and DCD with implications for teaching. For example, ask yourself the following: –What are the student’s strengths, and how does this individual learn best? –Why does the student have difficulty performing certain skills, and what can I do to help? How would you teach based on these behaviors?

19. Physical Characteristics That Affect Movement Marked developmental delay Difficulty with motor planning Skill sequencing difficulty Spatial difficulties Extraneous movements not performed in a smooth and efficient manner Inability to control movements Inconsistency in skill performance

20. Cognitive Characteristics That Affect Movement Information-processing difficulties Perceptual and sensory difficulties Language and thinking delays Uneven academic achievement Difficulty completing and solving tasks in allotted time Failure to pay attention to details

21. Social Characteristics That Affect Movement Poor self-concept Impulsive—acting before thinking Hyperactive Easily distracted Short attention span Easily frustrated

22. General Educational Approaches Physical educators can support and collaborate effectively with other professionals to meet student needs. No universally supported approach but rather several that can include these: 1.Multisensory 2.Behavior management 3.Multifaceted

23. Specific Recommendations for Physical Education and Sport Safety Medication Behavior management Ecological task analysis Perceptual–motor development Inclusion Learning through movement Relaxation Youth sport

24. Safety First and Foremost Be aware of any potentially harmful activities; periodically check all facilities and equipment. Use developmentally appropriate equipment (age, body type, and skill level). Avoid unstructured physical activity designed to blow off steam. (continued)

25. Safety First and Foremost (continued) Allow time to motor plan; perform skills under control and at a slower rate. Identify students taking medication. Safeguard against physical and psychological harm. Design the program to promote cooperation and positive interaction among students.

26. Medication Identification Schedule Type, dosage, and side effects Rebound effect Drug holidays See also medication sidebar in the text (page 225).

27. Behavior Management Emphasize student success and provide a positive experience by organizing the environment with instructional strategies. Class structure: Use consistent rules, routines, and clear transitions. Class organization: Eliminate irrelevant stimuli; keep students active and on task. Teaching prompts or cues: Keep directions simple; avoid providing too much information. Give positive feedback for student’s efforts and for staying on task.

28. Ecological Task Analysis (ETA) The movement skill, form, and performance outcome are all the results of the dynamic interactions or constraints among the 1.task, 2.conditions or environmental situation, and 3.performer. Summary: Be a careful observer of movement and be able to task analyze skills.

29. Inclusion The majority of students with LD, ADHD, and DCD are taught in a general physical education class with peers without disabilities. Peer-tutor programs Reciprocal teaching

30. Learning Through Movement or Interdisciplinary Teaching Movement activities taught in physical education can be integrated into other subject areas throughout the school curriculum (Cone, Werner, Cone, & Woods, 1998). Helps in learning abstract concepts. Movement promotes active rather than passive involvement in learning. Movement is a natural medium for kinesthetic learners. Movement can be used to stimulate expression and communication. Learning is reinforced in a fun and meaningful way. Helps to foster collaboration among professionals.

31. Relaxation Socially appropriate way to control emotions when upset or to handle stressful situations. Use when students lose focus, become too excited, or encounter a stressful situation. End class with relaxation in the form of a cool-down or closure activity. Methods used in physical education can include progressive relaxation, yoga, tai chi, static stretching, imagery, or impulse- control games.

32. Youth Sport Students with learning disabilities can experience the same benefits as their peers without disabilities. Find a developmentally age-appropriate sport the student enjoys. An individual sport such as dance, karate, tennis, or swimming might be a better selection than a team sport. Proper coach selection is critical. Parents can assist the coach by providing such information as the child’s 1.unique behaviors and strategies for overcoming them, 2.unique medical considerations, 3.reinforcements that motivate, and 4.learning strategies that work best.

33. Important Questions to Ask To enhance instruction, physical educators can ask the following questions: What are the student’s strengths and needs? How does this student best learn? How can I as the teacher change the environment and the task to help this student learn? What approaches and programs are already in place for this student at school and at home? What support systems will I need, and how will I work to get them? How can I collaborate with others to ensure this student’s success?

34. Helpful Organizations Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD): www.chadd.org Council for Learning Disabilities (CLD): www.cldinternational.org Division on Learning Disabilities (DLD) within the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC): www.cec.sped.org; see also www.teachingld.org