1. 1 Dairy Cattle Production (95314) Dr Jihad Abdallah Raising Heifers from birth to weaning

2. 2 Sources of this lecture (1) Michel A. Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: OVERVIEW OF SOUND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin- Madison (2) Michel A. Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: IMPORTANCE OF COLOSTRUM FEEDING Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison (3) Michel A. Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: FEEDING HAY, CONCENTRATES AND WATER. Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison (4) Michel A. Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: FEEDING MILK AND MILK REPLACERS. Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison Michel A. (5) Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: NEONATAL DIARRHEA. Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison (6) Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: P NEUMONIA. Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison

3. 3 Good calf-raising practices Good calf-raising practices include: -proper feeding - bedding, -sanitation, -ventilation, - prevention of health problems and close daily observation.

4. 4 First 4 hours after birth Make sure the calf is breathing: If a calf does not breathe immediately after birth, the nose and mouth must first be cleared of mucus. The calf may be laid with its head lower than the rest of the body or lifted upside down for a few seconds to drain out mucus. Once the airways are cleared, artificial respiration can be applied by alternatively compressing and relaxing the chest walls. Respiration can also be stimulated by tickling the calf’s nostrils with a piece of straw or by pouring cold water on the calf’s head.

5. 5 First 4 hours after birth Disinfect the navel Sometimes, the navel bleeds. Usually, application of a clean piece of cotton is sufficient to stop the hemorrhage. Any blood inside the cord should be squeezed out before dipping or painting the cord with a strong iodine solution (7%) or other antiseptic Infection of the naval can be avoided if the cow calves in a clean environment and the navel is disinfected soon after birth.

6. 6 First 4 hours after birth Dry the calf A wet calf in a windy environment is likely to get cold and sick rapidly. A calf can withstand low temperatures if kept dry and protected from wind. Identify the calf Newborns should be identified in a permanent fashion and birth data should be recorded in an individual permanent record. Identification methods include: neck strap or chain with a number; metal or plastic ear tag; ink tattoo; and freeze brand.

7. 7 First 4 hours after birth Feed colostrum: Colostrum is highly nutritious, contains antibodies which fight infection by organisms, and has a laxative effect and stimulates the normal function of the digestive tract. Reseach showed that more than 22% of calf mortality could be attributed to a lack of immune resistance. Colostrum should be fed for the first three or four meals within the first 24 hours after birth The first meal should be fed as soon as the calf is breathing normally after delivery and not later than one hour after birth. The second meal should be fed within six to nine hours of birth.

8. 8 Source: (1)

9. 9 Source: (2)

10. 10 First 4 hours after birth There is a rapid decline in the efficiency of absorption of antibodies within hours after birth. Digestion of antibodies increases and intestinal cells quickly become impermeable to antibodies (at about 24 hours after birth, calves lose the ability to absorb intact antibodies - gut closure). Calves not receiving colostrum within 12 hours of birth rarely absorb enough antibodies to provide adequate immunity. The quantity of colostrum needed by most calves ranges from 1.25 to 2.5 kg per meal. The amount consumed per feeding should not exceed the capacity of the calf’s stomach (5% of body weight).

11. 11 The concentration of immunoglobulin G (IgG) needed in the blood to protect the calf from infectious diseases is 10 mg/ml of serum.. Holstein calves only absorb enough IgG when they are fed two liters of colostrum once shortly after birth and two liters a second time 12 hours after birth When the first feeding is delayed or less than two liters of colostrum is fed or, the amount of IgG in the blood is insufficient to prevent disease (less than 10 mg/ml). Colostrum should be warmed to body temperature (39°C) in a water bath and fed with a pail or a bottle equipped with a clean nipple. Equipment must be thoroughly cleaned after each use. An esophageal tube may be used to force feed a weak calf unable to nurse.

12. 12 Source: (2)

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14. 14 In a few cases, colostrum is a vehicle for disease transfer between a cow and its calf. Examples: - Bovine leukosis virus is found in the colostrum of infected cows. - Johnes’ disease (paratuberculosis). Thus the calf of a cow with leukosis or Johnes’ disese should be removed from the calving area immediately after birth and fed colostrum from a cow free of the disease. Thus it is very useful to keep a reserve of frozen colostrum (a warm water bath, 45-50°C, should be used to thaw frozen colostrum and warm it up to body temperature before feeding).

15. 15 First 4 hours after birth Do not leave the calf with the cow: calf survival increases greatly when the calf is placed in a clean, dry environment and fed colostrum immediately after birth. calves left with their dam usually ingest less colostrum too late. risk of transmission of infectious diseases increases when the calf and the cow are not separated. When leaving the calf with the cow bonding occurs between the calf and the cow, However, at some point, this bond must be broken, creating a stressful situation for the cow.

16. 16 First 4 hours after birth House the calf in an individual pen The risk of acquiring and transmitting disease is reduced when newborns are placed in individual pens that are dry, protected from draft and that prevent direct contact between animals. In addition, as the calf grows older, an individual pen allows the caretaker to monitor the intake of grain starter, which is an important criteria in deciding when the calf is ready for weaning.

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18. 18 The first weeks after birth Adopt good hygiene habits: Necessary to reduce spread of diseases Feeding utensils (nipple bottles) should be cleaned after each use. Pens should be cleaned and disinfected as soon as calves are moved to another location. Pens should remain vacant for at least three to four weeks before putting another calf

19. 19 The first weeks after birth Observe calves for any signs of disease: take the calf’s temperature and isolate calves showing signs of illness immediately (loss of appetite, weakness, sunken eyes, etc.). Remove extra teats (optional) Extra teats can be removed from two to six weeks of age while the calf is still small and easy to handle. Sharp, curved scissors or a scalpel can be used to snip the teat off at the line where it joins the udder. There is seldom any bleeding. Nevertheless, strict sanitary conditions should be observed (disinfection of the area prior to and after the operation, and disinfection of the surgical equipment).

20. 20 The first weeks after birth Dehorn the calf Although the horn may be useful for restraining, dehorning is recommended because horned cows can cause injuries to other cows or people. Dehorning can be done when horn buds are emerging (10 days to six weeks after birth). As calves get older, dehorning becomes more stressful. Dehorning should be done prior to weaning to avoid additional stress during that period. Dehorning can be done with an electric dehorner or caustic potash.

21. 21 The first weeks after birth Vaccination: The incidence of diseases like diarrhea due to corona virus, rotovirus and E. coli may be reduced by immunization. Consult the veterinarian for a suitable vaccination program

22. 22 Feeding heifers from birth to weaning In raising dairy heifers, the major goals for feeding before weaning are to: -Raise healthy calves; -Obtain adequate skeletal growth; -Avoid retarding rumen development (should not feed large amounts of milk for a long time). Growth rate before weaning: 200-400 g

23. In addition to hygiene, the following factors are important when feeding milk to young calves: -Type of milk offered; -Meal size; -Frequency of feeding; -Method of feeding; -Milk temperature. 23

24. How much milk should be fed per day? Feed 1 kg of milk per day for each 10 to 12 kg of body weight at birth (8 to 10% of its body weight at birth ; 2.5 kg of milk for a 25 kg calf, 3.5 kg milk for a 35 kg calf, etc) Calves should be fed the same amount of milk until they are weaned. By limiting milk consumption, calves are encouraged to consume solid feed at an early age. Frequency of milk feeding: It is preferred to feed milk in two equal meals per day When feeding in one meal, excess milk flows back into the rumen causing digestive problems( bloat, etc) 24

25. Method of feeding: Pail feeding or nipple feeding Nipple feeding forces the calf to drink slowly and reduces the risk of diarrhea and other digestive disturbances (but strict equipment hygiene is required). A calf can be taught to drink from a bucket within a few days after birth. This technique is easy, rapid and requires little cleaning work. Milk temperature: Cold milk leads to more digestive upset than warm milk. 39°C during the first week after birth and 25-30°C for older calves. 25

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27. 27 Milk feeding program for dairy heifers

28. Feeding whole milk Whole milk can be fed until weaning, after colostrum and transitional milk feeding phases. Limited amounts of whole milk supplemented with a good grain starter is an excellent feed combination for dairy calves. Growth performance obtained with whole milk and a grain starter is often considered the standard to evaluate other products or feeding management techniques. 28

29. Milk replcer Calves may receive a milk replacer beginning at 4-6 days of age. Replacers usually contain less fat and thus less energy (75% to 86%) than whole milk on a dry matter basis. Calves fed milk replacer usually gain slightly less body weight per day than calves fed whole milk. 29

30. 30 Recommended nutrient concentration of milk replacer (NRC, 1989)

31. 31 Digstion of milk in calves Only liquid feed can be utilized effectively by calves a few days old When whole milk enters the abomasum, it forms a curd. Curd formation results from the coagulation of milk protein, or casein, under the action of the enzymes rennin and pepsin, and by hydrochloric acid. Whey proteins, lactose and most minerals separate from the curd and pass into the small intestine rapidly (as much as 200 ml per hour) The lactose is digested quickly and, in contrast to casein and fat, provides immediate energy to the calf.

32. 32 The stomach of a newborn calf In the newborn calf, the abomasum is the only stomach fully developed and functional (functions as a monogastric) 32

33. 33 Rumen development Newborn and young calves fed primarily liquid diets do not function as ruminants because they have only one functional stomach, the abomasum. The rumen of calves denied access to dry food will remain undeveloped (this technique is used to produce veal calves). Thus the consumption of dry feed is critical to rumen development. Bacteria, protozoa and fungi that are normal inhabitants of the rumen are established naturally when the calf ingests dry feed.

34. 34 Rumen development The endproducts of carbohydrate fermentation (acetate and butyrate in particular) are important promoters of rumen growth and development. Thus rumen growth and development depend more on grain intake than on forage intake. The early consumption of a highly palatable starter (grain mix) is important to ensure rapid rumen development and a smooth transition at weaning time.

35. 35 Stages in rumen development Source: (3)

36. 36 When should a starter be offered? A starter should be offered as early as four days after birth and should continue until about four months of age, six to eight weeks past weaning. The calf will eat very small amounts of solid food for the first two weeks after birth. However, they should be encouraged to eat the starter

37. 37 Encouraging calves to eat starter Starter should include molasses or other palatable ingredients; Starter should be offered frequently, but in small amounts to keep it fresh; Milk intake should be limited to a maximum of 10% of body weight at birth per day; Clean, fresh water should be available as soon as the grain starter is offered. Consumption of dry feed is enhanced by increased water consumption; A handful of starter can be placed on the calf’s muzzle or at the bottom of the pail immediately after it has finished drinking milk; Starters may also be fed with a nipple bottle to encourage consumption.

38. 38 Source: (3)

39. 39 Should hay and concentrates be fed? Fibrous or bulky feed was thought to play a role in increasing rumen capacity and maintaining the normal shape of rumen papillae. However, recent research has shown no advantage to feeding hay when the starter is formulated to contain sufficient amounts of fiber. Carbohydrates in the concentrate are essential because they provide the butyric acid and acetic acid required for the development of the rumen wall. If the starter does not contain at least 25% neutral detergent fiber (NDF), hay may be provided.

40. 40 Starter should contain about 18% crude protein, 75 to 80% total digestible nutrients (TDN), and should be fortified with vitamins A, D, and E. There are two types of starters: - grain starter - complete starter Complete starter contains a higher level of fiber (i.e., less energy), slightly less palatable and ingested in lower amounts than than grain starter. When starters are fed, forages are not needed until after the calf is weaned. Usually the grains in starter are coarsely ground or rolled to obtain a coarse texture. Grinding too fine is not recommended as fine particles do not stimulate rumination.

41. 41 Examples of starter feed for calves Source: (3)

42. 42 Source: (3) Consumption of a grain starter and body weight gain of young calves fed milk at a constant rate and forage free choice

43. 43 Weaning Weaning of calves is often done on the basis of age, live weight; and daily intake of concentrate. The decisions about calf weaning should be based on the amount of dry feed calves ingest per day, not on their age or weight. Calf starter should be made available five to 10 days after birth. A calf consuming 0.7 kg of dry feed or more on three consecutive days is ready for weaning. When calves are fed low levels of milk to encourage early consumption of dry food, weaning can be done abruptly. In contrast, if milk is given in large amounts, weaning may require two to three weeks of slow transition to avoid a setback in growth.

44. 44 Weaning Calves not eating sufficient amounts of a grain starter at weaning lose weight for a few days after weaning. This weight loss occurs regardless of the age at weaning. Therefore, it is not advised to delay weaning in hope of a “better transition”  the focus should be on trying to encourage early consumption of grain starter. Most calves are ready for weaning by five weeks of age, but the recommendation is to wean at about eight weeks of age. Calves should remain in individual pens or hutches for about 10 days after weaning, until the urge to nurse is lost.

45. 45 Weaning Milk may be offered only once a day the week before complete weaning. Calves fed a grain starter may be ready for weaning a few weeks earlier than those fed a complete starter. Weaning before four weeks of age presents more risks and usually leads to a higher mortality rate. In contrast, weaning later than eight weeks of age is costly because: The ration of a weaned calf (forage and concentrates) is usually less expensive than milk or milk replacer; The growth rate remains limited as long as calves are fed a liquid diet. Weight gain increases considerably after weaning, provided the calf is well adapted to a diet of solid food (starter and forages).

46. Neonatal Diarrhea Diarrhea could be avoided by good management practices, It is the most common cause of death in young calves. Most fatal diarrhea occurs the first two weeks after birth. As calves grow older, their susceptibility to infections decreases rapidly but remains significant until three to four weeks of age. 46

47. Types of diarrhea Nutritional: - overfeeding milk - milk replacer of poor quality, - sudden change in milk composition Infectious: E. coli is the primary organism involved in diarrhea that occurs the during the first few days following birth (neonatal diarrhea). 47

48. Prevention of Neonatal Diarrhea 48 1)Management practices 2) Vaccine

49. Treatment 49 In severe cases: administer electrolytes and antibiotics intravenously.

50. 50 Electrolyte solutions used for oral rehydration of calves suffering from diarrhea Should milk still be fed? - Research indicated that calves receiving ORS only for two days remain dehydrated and lose weight rapidly. - Calves receiving their daily allotment of milk (10% of body weight) plus an acidic ORS do not exhibit a worsening of their diarrhea and actually gain body weight throughout the rehydration treatment period (seven days).

51. Pneumonia Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs. It is the second most common health problem in young calves, after diarrhea. Most respiratory problems occur when the calf is between six and eight weeks of age. They are caused by the interaction of one or more microorganisms with stress (e.g., transport), housing (e.g., ventilation) and nutrition of the calf. 51

52. 52 Microorganisms implicated in pneumonia

53. Treatment of Pneumonia The calf should be placed in a warm (sunshine), dry, well-ventilated (fresh air) environment. Can be treated with fluid administration. Antibiotic treatment is aimed at reducing the effect of secondary bacterial invasion. 53