1. Power and Influence “We have to stop describing power as always in negative terms, [as in] it excludes…. In fact, power produces; it produces reality.” - Foucault (Supervise and Punish, 1975, p. 12)

2. Cyert, R.M. & March, J. G. A behavioral theory of the firm. Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963. Developed four “relational concepts” – implicit rules in making decisions more manageable. Quasi-resolution of conflict  Divide problems into pieces and farm pieces out to units.  Units make locally rational decisions  Decisions are never consistent but need only be good enough to keep the coalition functioning.

3. Uncertainty Avoidance  Organizations employ a range of simplifying mechanisms – standard operating procedures, traditions, contracts.  This enables them to act as if the environment is clearer than it is.

4. Problemistic Search  Organizations look for solutions in the neighborhood of presenting the problem and grab the first acceptable solution.

5. Organizational Learning  Over time, organizations evolve their goals and aspirations levels, altering what they attend to and what they ignore, and changing search rules.

6. Political Frame: Power and Decision Making Political frame views authority as only one among many forms of power.  Recognizes the importance of individual/group needs but emphasizes that scarce resources and incompatible preferences cause needs to collide.  Question then becomes how competing groups articulate preferences and mobilize power to get what they want

7. Gamson, W. A. (1968). Power and discontent. Florence, KY: Dorsey Press. Authorities  Entitled to make decisions binding on their subordinates.  Recipients or targets of influence and the agents or initiators of social control.

8. Partisans  Any member of a coalition who wants to exert bottom-up pressure on authorities. Ex: Kids Recipient of parental decisions Try to influence decisions makers Try to split authorities through lobbying Form coalitions to strengthen bargaining position

9. Partisans can draw on other sources of power to influence authorities  Position power (authority) – formal positions confer legitimate authority  Control or rewards – the ability to deliver jobs, money, political support or other rewards brings power to the table.  Coercive power – the ability to constrain, block, interfere, or punish (unions

10.  Information and expertise – Power flows to those with the information and know-how to solve a problem (consultants)  Reputation – builds on expertise. Track records based on prior accomplishments increase influence.  Personal power – charisma, energy, stamina, political smarts, vision, gift of gab permeate power – called referent power (Kennedy v. Carter)

11.  Alliances and networks – getting things done through a complex network of individuals and groups brings more success (Kotter, 1982)  Access and control of agendas – one by-produce of networks/alliances: decision arenas. Getting a “seat at the table” to promote interests that are represented; absentees are ignored or ideas are distorted.

12.  Framing: control of meaning and symbols – designing the framework in which an issue will be viewed is key to determining the result. Elites and opinion leaders have substantial ability to shape meaning Positive side – fosters hope and meaning Negative side – elites can convince others to accept and support things not in their best interests.

13. Conflict in Organizations  Political perspective Scarce resources and divergent interests produce conflict – inedible conflict is not necessarily a problem or something is amiss Emphasizes strategy and tactics more than resolving the conflict

14. Conflict has benefits as well as costs. Heffron, F. (1989). Theory and Public Organizations.  No conflict – may be apathetic, uncreative, stagnate organization.  Conflict challenges the status quo, stimulates interest and curiosity.  Root of personal and social change, creativity, and innovation.  Encourages new ideas and approaches to problems, stimulating innovation. (p. 185)

15. Down side of conflict in organizations  Can experience too much or too little conflict in organizations.  Intervention may be needed to tone down or stoke up intensity, depending on the situation.  Badly managed conflict leads to infighting and destructive power struggles.

16. Peck, S. (1998). The different drum: Community making and peace. Leadership challenges:  Recognize and manage productive and debilitating conflict.  Be a persuasive advocate for their group on a political field with many players representing competing interests.  Possess negotiation skills to develop alliances and cement deals for their group to move forward.