1. © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chapter 9

2. 9 - 2 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Introduction

3. 9 - 3 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Introduction At the time of Columbus’ departure from Spain, the largest empire in the world was Tawantinsuyu, the Inca empire. -The empire was greater in size than any fifteenth- or twentieth- century European state, covering 380,000 square miles. -The Inca controlled the most extensive political domain that has ever existed in the Southern Hemisphere. -Cuzco, the capital, governed 80 provinces.

4. 9 - 4 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Introduction The prehistory of western South America is generally similar to that of Mesoamerica. -The earliest experiments with food production preceded the transition to sedentary village life. -Although the first South American villages date to 3,500 B.C., earlier than those of Mesoamerica, the first sedentary communities were on the coast in both areas. -Greater social differences and the first leadership positions developed soon thereafter.

5. 9 - 5 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Introduction There were some important differences between prehispanic sequences in Mesoamerica and South America. -Most of the major South American centers were shorter- lived than those of Mesoamerica. -The South American region lacked a core region like the Basin of Mexico. -Power shifted between the Pacific Coast and the rugged uplands. -Animal domestication was more important in South America. -Land transportation using pack animals was present in South America, while water transportation was more important in Mesoamerica. -Writing developed in Mesoamerica, while the Inca only had a numerical system using knots.

6. 9 - 6 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Introduction

7. 9 - 7 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Introduction Eight South American sites are reviewed in this chapter. -El Paraíso -Chavín de Huántar -Moche -Sipán -Tiwanaku -Chan Chan -Cuzco and Machu Picchu -Huánuco Pampa

8. 9 - 8 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. El Paraíso The west coast of Peru has interesting features. -The waters off the coast are one of the world’s richest fishing areas. -The shore is one of the world’s driest deserts, rarely receiving measurable quantities of rain. -Streams carrying the snowmelt and rainfall from the Andes provide most of the surface water.

9. 9 - 9 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. El Paraíso The desert coast of Peru was first settled after 7,000 B.C. by mobile groups who exploited various environmental zones. -Shellfish, along with deer, small mammals, and birds were hunted. -Wild plants were collected in the coastal river valleys.

10. 9 - 10 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. El Paraíso After 5,000 B.C,. groups became more sedentary in the coastal region. -Increased reliance on marine and plant products occurred. -Cultivated squash and tubers introduced from the highlands were consumed. -Permanent villages were established shortly after 4,000 B.C.

11. 9 - 11 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. El Paraíso El Paraíso was an early sedentary village on the coast of Peru. -Between 2,500 and 2,000 B.C., larger settlements with monumental architecture were established in the valleys along the coast. -El Paraíso was located about 1.2 miles from the coast along a permanent stream. -This site contains eight or nine large stone structures that cover over 140 acres. -These structures range in size from three rooms to massive complexes measuring up to 980 feet long and 325 feet wide.

12. 9 - 12 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. El Paraíso Early excavations revealed that one of the stone structures consisted of a series of rectangular rooms, courts, and passageways. -Walls were 5 to 8 feet in height. -Walls were built of large stone blocks cemented together with clay. -Occupation ended by 1,500 B.C.

13. 9 - 13 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. El Paraíso The function of the site is not entirely known. -Artifacts suggest both religious and non-religious use. -The area may have been used for making textiles. -Large quantities of labor were required to construct the units.

14. 9 - 14 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. El Paraíso The diet of inhabitants of El Paraíso is uncertain. -Residents may have depended largely on marine foods. -Cultivated plants have also been recovered at the site. -Some indications are that plants foods provided a significant portion of the diet.

15. 9 - 15 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chavín de Huántar Chavín de Huántar was an early Andean center. -After 1,000 B.C., the balance of power shifted from the coast to larger centers in the Andean highlands. -Chavín de Huántar is situated over 10,000 feet above sea level, near two rivers.

16. 9 - 16 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chavín de Huántar The Chavín Horizon style is present at the site. -There are important artistic similarities between the stone carvings at Chavín de Huántar and the decorative items of pottery, stone, and metal found at other sites in the highlands and on the coast. -Chavín carvings interweave figures that combine the natural features of people, snakes, jaguars, caymans, and birds with intricate geometric and curvilinear designs.

17. 9 - 17 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chavín de Huántar Major occupation at the site occurred between 850 and 200 B.C. -Ceremonial architecture reached its largest extent after 390 B.C. -By 200 B.C., the site included a complex of rectangular, stone masonry platforms covering over 1 acre. -The largest platform rises about 45 feet above the surrounding terrace. -The “Old Temple” was U-shaped and consisted of a main building and two wings that enclosed a plaza.

18. 9 - 18 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chavín de Huántar By 400-200 B.C., several thousand people lived at Chavín de Huántar. -Residential areas surrounded the ceremonial complex. -The size and scale of the site far surpassed any others in the area. -Chavín de Huántar became interconnected with large settlements in other highland areas and the coast.

19. 9 - 19 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Moche

20. 9 - 20 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Moche Moche culture was established around A.D. 1, about 3.5 miles from the ocean, on the north coast of Peru. -After the Chavín era, between 200 B.C and A.D. 400, mostly small local polities were present in the region. -At the time, Moche was the largest settlement on the north coast of Peru. -Unlike other centers at the time, Moche controlled not only the rest of the valley, but also adjacent coastal valleys.

21. 9 - 21 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Moche Two major pyramids, or haucas, dominate the site and are separated by a 1650-foot plaza. -The Huaca del Sol is 130 feet above the plaza. -The structure measures 1,100 by 525 feet and is one of the largest adobe structure ever built in the Americas. -The Huaca de la Luna is 100 feet high. -The two pyramids were used differently. -The Huaca del Sol had domestic refuse accumulated at the top, while the Huaca de la Luna was swept clean at the top.

22. 9 - 22 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Moche The two huacas were built from adobe bricks that contained over 100 different symbols on their tops. -The symbols may have been the marks of the manufacturers of the bricks. -The pyramids required hundreds of millions of bricks, constructed in discrete, rectangular units. -The constructed segments may have been built by groups of associated laborers. -The use of conscripted laborers was a means of tribute employed by the Inca over a thousand years later.

23. 9 - 23 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Moche By A.D. 300-400, Moche influence was present in other areas. -In the Virú and Santa Valleys, Moche pottery traditions quickly replaced local traditions. -In these areas, a sizable monument following the Moche huaca style was erected. -Moche influence ceased by A.D. 600.

24. 9 - 24 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Moche Subsistence of the Moche was varied. -Cotton, maize, potatoes, peanuts, and peppers were grown. -Complex canal systems were built to transport water, perhaps requiring labor-recruitment systems. -Fishing and hunting of sea mammals occurred. -Large public food-storage complexes were built.

25. 9 - 25 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Moche Moche society was highly stratified. -Marked differences in the quantity and quality of grave goods were found. -Variation in residential architecture also indicated differences in status.

26. 9 - 26 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Moche Moche artisans are noted for their metalworking. -Various techniques were employed, and they began to use turquoise mosaic inlay and simple casting as well. -They also developed the lost wax casting technique.

27. 9 - 27 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Moche Moche potters were also quite accomplished. -A wide array of ceramic vessels portrayed Moche mythology, ritual, and daily life. -Many figures and professions were illustrated. -Battles are frequently depicted. -Erotic practices were displayed.

28. 9 - 28 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Sipán Sipán has been subject to looting for years. -Local farmers would supplement their incomes by removing and selling artifacts. -In late 1986, a royal tomb of a Moche ruler was uncovered was uncovered by locals who removed many of the valuable artifacts. -Researchers soon moved in to recover as much information as possible.

29. 9 - 29 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Sipán The smallest of Sipán’s three pyramids was built in six stages. -The earliest stage began during the first century A.D. -Initially the pyramid was only a low rectangular platform with two steps. -Each subsequent building enlarged the pyramid. -The final construction phase was completed around A.D. 300.

30. 9 - 30 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Sipán Sipán excavations uncovered three fabulous tombs. -They contained perhaps the richest burial ever found in the Western Hemisphere. -In each tomb, the central figure was elaborately costumed in gold and silver ornaments, worked shell, gemstone, and metal. -Findings allowed the question of whether the Moche actually engaged in such acts as the Sacrifice Ceremony to be answered.

31. 9 - 31 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Sipán The central figures in two of the largest tombs were identified as specific participants in the Sacrifice Ceremony. -The Warrior Priest had paired backflaps, a crescent-shaped headdress piece, and other adornments. -A second principal figure was also found. -The earliest tomb was not as rich in artifacts, suggesting that the Sacrifice Ceremony was less elaborate in earlier Moche times.

32. 9 - 32 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Sipán The excavations provide a clearer understanding of Moche social and economic organization. -Great wealth differences are apparent from the elaborate burial goods that would have required highly skilled artisans. -The burials show that at least some of the art depictions are of actual events.

33. 9 - 33 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Tiwanaku Inca attributed their place of origin to a place called Collasuyu. -The origin myth may stem from the belief in the sacred nature of Collasuyu’s Lake Titicaca, the largest lake in South America.

34. 9 - 34 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Tiwanaku

35. 9 - 35 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Tiwanaku The first sedentary settlements south of Lake Titicaca were established during the second millennium B.C. -The inhabitants of these early communities had a mixed agrarian economy. -The early villagers subsisted on a range of domesticated species adapted to the torrential rains of the wet season, as well as an extended dry season. -The most important food sources were plants like potatoes, grains like quinoa, and domesticated animals, such as alpaca and llama.

36. 9 - 36 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Tiwanaku One of the early villages on the southern shores of Lake Titicaca was Chiripa. -The center of the site had a large mound constructed between 1,300-1,200 B.C. -Between 900 and 100 B.C., the mound was expanded and stone retaining walls were built along three sides. -A series of subterranean houses were arranged around the mound. -Later a sunken court was built at the top of the mound.

37. 9 - 37 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Tiwanaku A small settlement was founded in the last centuries of the first millennium B.C., about 12 miles south of Lake Titicaca, on the site of Tiwanaku. -The site was situated about12,600 feet above sea level. -Monumental architecture arose during the first centuries A.D., when the site rose to importance. -Around A.D. 400, Tiwanaku grew to 1.5 square miles and a population of 25,000 – 40,000 people. -The city dominated the region for 600-800 years.

38. 9 - 38 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Tiwanaku The core of Tiwanaku was a 50-acre area at the center of the site. -An enormous stone-faced, stepped platform mound measured 655 feet on each side and 50 feet high. -Some of the blocks used to construct the feature were 11 tons and had to be brought to Tiwanaku from quarries more than 60 miles away. -The civic-ceremonial core also included a complex of buildings, with a stone drainage system, that may have been a palace. -The Gateway of the Sun was the most famous stone sculpture at the site and was carved from a single huge stone block.

39. 9 - 39 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Tiwanaku Food production and trade occurred at Tiwanaku. -Camelid pastoralism and cultivation of grains and tubers were employed. -Land was reclaimed from waterlogged lands adjacent to Lake Titicaca. -Long-distance trade was maintained with economic colonies established in the Pacific Coast zone and tropical forested zones to the east. -Warm region crops were obtained through trade. -Trade connections were maintained by large llama caravans.

40. 9 - 40 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Tiwanaku Tiwanaku’s domination over the region diminished after A.D. 1,000. -A number of smaller competing states emerged, each maintaining its own local sphere of influence until the middle of the fifteenth century A.D. -The specific cause of Tiwanaku’s collapse has not been determined.

41. 9 - 41 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chan

42. 9 - 42 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chan Chan Chan was founded at the mouth of the Moche Valley by A.D. 800 – 900. -The extent of early settlement has not been determined. -The site grew rapidly in size and importance. -By the middle of the fifteenth century, Chan Chan covered 8 square miles. -Chan Chan was the capital of the Chimú state with a range of over 600 miles.

43. 9 - 43 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chan The civic-ceremonial core of Chan Chan covered over 2 square miles. -The central area was dominated by 10 rectilinear compounds, each surrounded by high adobe walls. -Many of these compounds, called ciudadelas, measured 600 – 1,900 feet on a side. -A large platform-court complex and flat-topped mounds were also part of the central area.

44. 9 - 44 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chan The ciudadelas each had a single entrance though the north wall that opened onto a corridor leading to a broad court. -Each compound had many storerooms, smaller courts, and living quarters. -Burial platforms were also included. -The names of 10 Chimú kings have been found to correspond to the 10 ciudadelas. -Most of the residents of Chan Chan lived outside the compounds.

45. 9 - 45 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chan Outside labor was used for monumental construction. -The population at Chan Chan was relatively small, perhaps 25,000 people. -Labor investments were made in agricultural intensification. -A hydraulic system was constructed to bring water to the site along with an intervalley canal designed to bring water to the Moche Valley, about 40 miles away. -The Chimú may have practiced split inheritance, where a successor to the throne received the office of leader, but the land and other personal wealth was transferred to the corporate group of the junior kinsmen. -The inheritance pattern may have required each ruler to raise his own revenues.

46. 9 - 46 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chan Between 1462 and 1470, the Chimú were in competition with Inca. -By the end of the decade, the conflict ended and the Chimú kingdom was incorporated into the Inca empire. -The Inca were able to link their lands and road systems to those controlled by the Chimú. -After the Inca conquest, Chimú artifacts were found to be more widely spread.

47. 9 - 47 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Cuzco and Machu Picchu Much of what is known about the Inca comes from written documents filtered through European chroniclers. -In 1532, a group of Spaniards led by Francisco Pizzaro came into contact with populations that were part of a giant centralized domain called Tawantinsuyu. -The capital of the empire was Cuzco. -The highest-ranked leader was called Inca. -At the time of Spanish contact, a rivalry existed between two brothers, which may have contributed to the loss of the empire to the Spanish.

48. 9 - 48 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Cuzco and Machu Picchu According to legend, the rise of the Inca began with hostilities between Cuzco and the neighboring people of Chanca. -The Chanca laid siege on Cuzco, however Cuzco’s defenders rallied to defeat the Chanca and drive them away from the Inca homeland. -Cusi Inca Yupanqui was crowned Inca after the victory around A.D. 1440. -He was renamed Pachakuti. -Less than a century later, the empire stretched over 2,600 miles from north to south.

49. 9 - 49 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Cuzco and Machu Picchu

50. 9 - 50 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Cuzco and Machu Picchu Cuzco was established by Manco Capac, the first Inca ruler, in a mountain valley about 11,500 feet above sea level. -The site was already one of the largest in the Lake Titicaca region by A.D. 1,000. -Cuzco was rebuilt after the victory of Chanca. -A fortress with massive masonry walls was built on a steep hill above the central area. -The Temple of the Sun was built by Pachakuti at the center of the site. -Cuzco contained smaller temples, public buildings, and elite residences. -The structures were typically built of cut stone, fit with such precision that mortar was not required.

51. 9 - 51 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Cuzco and Machu Picchu Cuzco was not a typical Inca city. -The principal function of the city was administrative, with many of its inhabitants involved in civic-ceremonial activities. -Most of the commoner population lived in smaller communities in the surrounding valley. -Their residences were built of stone and adobe. -A network of storehouses and religious shrines were placed in the immediate vicinity of Cuzco.

52. 9 - 52 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Cuzco and Machu Picchu The market of Cuzco was small and outside the center of the city. -This is in keeping with the administrative nature of the site. -The Inca empire had a central role in the collection and redistribution of goods. -Compared to the Aztec, private trade and marketing occurred at a very low level in the Inca empire.

53. 9 - 53 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Cuzco and Machu Picchu Machu Picchu is the most famous archaeological site in Peru. -The ruins lie on a saddle between two mountain peaks. -Despite the site’s grandeur, little is known about the ruin. -Burials of men and women are present, suggesting the site was not a military fortress. -Access to the site was limited. -The ceremonial core of Machu Picchu could be entered only through a stone gateway. -According to Spanish legal documents, Machu Picchu was the property of the descendants of Pachakuti.

54. 9 - 54 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Cuzco and Machu Picchu An intihuatana, a large stone pillar thought to have a ceremonial function, was found at Machu Picchu. -Some researchers have proposed that the intihuatana was used by Inca priests as a sundial. -Others have proposed that the pillar had no obvious astronomical function. -Some features at Machu Picchu did have astronomical functions.

55. 9 - 55 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Huánuco Pampa After their conquest of the Lake Titicaca region, the Inca expanded through both military and political means. -Inca ambassadors often negotiated peaceful submission. -When military action was required, the Inca had a large, effective fighting force. -The empire was divided into subunits for administration purposes. -Populations of colonized groups were shifted to different locations to break up dissident groups.

56. 9 - 56 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Huánuco Pampa Huánuco Pampa was an Inca administrative center located in central Peru. -The Inca rapidly built the site during the middle of the second half of the fifteenth century A.D., on a high plain at 12,500 feet. -The ruins cover 0.8 square miles and had over 4,000 stone buildings. -An enormous central plaza included a giant stone platform.

57. 9 - 57 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Huánuco Pampa

58. 9 - 58 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Huánuco Pampa Extensive storage facilities revealed the site’s reliance on outside support. -The surrounding community could not have provided sufficient amounts to feed the site’s 10,000 – 15,000 inhabitants. -Huánuco Pampa was not a manufacturing center and lacked a major market. -Much of the populace was an administrative elite.

59. 9 - 59 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Huánuco Pampa Huánuco Pampa had giant storage vessels associated with the production of maize beer and spindle whorls and other artifacts linked to textile manufacturing. -The beer was probably distributed during feasts and state rituals. -Customary modes of sharing food and drink probably were used by the Inca state to establish loyalties. -Textiles had a sociopolitical significance.