2.  Hofstede (1980) created this term to mean an aspect of culture that can be measured relative to other cultures.  Differences in behavior are a consequence of culture.  Culture is defined as mental programming.  Unlearning what is programmed is difficult because we are resistant to change.

3.  Four Original Cultural Dimensions (Traits): ◦ Individualism vs. Collectivism ◦ Power Distance ◦ Masculinity vs. Femininity ◦ Uncertainty Avoidance Later Other Dimensions were added Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation Indulgence vs. Restraint Proxemics Time Consciousness

4. How people define themselves and their relationships with others

5.  The interest of the individual prevails over the interest of the group.  Ties between people are loose.  People look after themselves and their immediate families.  Competition is viewed as a way for the individual to meet his/her goals.

6.  The interests of the group prevail over the interest of the individual.  People are integrated into lifelong in- groups that protect each other in exchange for loyalty.

7. 1. Complexity: Societal groups that are more complex and industrialized, especially when there are more groups to ID with are more likely to be individualistic. 2. Affluence: Financial independence promotes social independence and mobility, hence are more likely to be individualistic 3.Heterogeneity: When people share the same religion, language, and customs they are more likely to be collectivist.

8.  Geography: Countries with moderate to cold climates tend to show more individualism.  Birth Rates: Countries with Higher Birth Rates tend to be collectivist.  History: Confucian countries are collectivist. Migrants from Europe who populated North America, Australia, and New Zealand tend to be individualistic.

9.  Individualistic: Direct Communication style where wants, needs, desires especially those related to the ego are in the spoken message.  Collectivist: Indirect Communication Style where wants, needs, desires are not directly stated. Ex. Thai Communication in which eye contact is avoided and personal distance is greater.

10. Highest RankingLowest Ranking  1 U.S.53. Guatemala  2. Australia52. Ecuador  3. Great Britain51. Panama  4.Canada50. Venezuela

11.  AIM: to see how individualism vs. collectivism influences conflict resolution communication styles.  METHODS:600 company managers working in Singapore were randomly surveyed on conflict resolution style. Participants were Japanese, Americans, Chinese Singaporeans.

12.  The higher the score on individualism the more likely the manager was to use a dominating conflict resolution style.  American managers were more dominating than Asian managers (unless they had lived n Singapore for several years).  Asian managers were not always Avoidant as predicted.

13.  Differences within the groups of Asian managers were greater than between American and Asian.  Self-reports about conflict resolution styles may not be reliable.  Therefore, conflict resolution be too complex to be boiled down to cultural dimensions.

14. The degree to which power differentials within society and organizations are accepted.

15. In cultures with small power distance (e.g. Australia, Austria, Denmark, Ireland, Israel, New Zealand), people expect and accept power relations that are more democratic. People relate to one another more as equals regardless of formal positions. Subordinates are more comfortable with and demand the right to contribute to and critique the decisions of those in power.

16. In cultures with large power distance (e.g. Malaysia), the less powerful accept power relations that are oppressive or authoritarian. Subordinates acknowledge the power of others based on their formal, hierarchical positions.

17. The value placed on traditionally male or female values (as understood in most Western cultures).

18. In “masculine” cultures, people (whether male or female) value competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition, and the accumulation of wealth and material possessions. In “feminine” cultures, people (whether male or female) value relationship and quality of life.

19. Top three scoring cultures attributing “Masculinity” according to Hofstede. 1. Japan 2. Austria 15. United States Top three scoring cultures attributing “Femininity” according to Hofstede 1. Sweden 2. Norway 3. Netherlands

20.  The extent to which people in a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations.

21.  Uncertain situations are avoided by maintaining strict rules, need for predictability, and a belief in absolute truths.  Cultures are characterized as active, aggressive, emotional, compulsive, security seeking, and intolerant.  Teachers and Bosses are expected to be strict.  Roman Catholic Christian Cultures tend to score high.

22.  Cultures are contemplative, less aggressive, unemotional, relaxed, accepting of personal risks, relatively tolerant.  Teachers and Bosses are expected to be tolerant and not always “right”.  Protestant Christian Cultures score low. Eastern Religions (except Japan) score med to low.

23. A society's "time horizon," or the importance attached to the future versus the past and present. AKA: Confucian work dynamism

24. In long-term oriented societies, people value actions and attitudes that affect the future: persistence/perseverance, loyalty, trustworthiness, respect for tradition, savings. Ex. Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, Singapore

25.  In short-term oriented societies, people value actions and attitudes that are affected by the present: immediate stability and appearances in the moment, innovation, quick results.  Ex. Finland, France, Germany, U.S., Australia

26.  AIM: to compare differences between Chinese and Australian students on conflict resolution techniques that were long-term or short-term in orientation.  METHODS: College students were given a hypothetical situation and asked to propose how this conflict might be resolved.

27.  The suggestions confirmed the long-term vs. short-term orientation of the participants’ culture.  Chinese students were concerned about saving face and maintaining personal relationships (eg. offer a gift, take them out to dinner).  Australian students relied on policies and procedures. Saving face was not important. Mediation was an option.

28.  Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun.  Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

29.  Different cultures have different perceptions of the amount of personal space that is required to be comfortable. ◦ Ex. People in conversation allow 4-7 inches in U.S., but in many parts of Europe the distance is about half of this.

30.  Monochronic Cultures focus on one thing at a time, so a high degree of scheduling, punctuality, meeting deadlines.  Polychronic Cultures focus on relationships and interactions, so delays are viewed as more expected and less frustrating.

31.  When looking at two cultures it should not be assumed that they must be different from one another or that just because a person is from a culture that the dimensions necessarily apply to that person.