1. Chapter 9 English Idioms  This chapter discusses idioms, their major characteristics, the way of classification in terms of grammatical functions and their variations in the actual use.

2. Main points: 1.Characteristics of idioms: Semantic unity Structural stability 2.Classification of idioms: Noun idioms Adjective idioms Verb idioms Adverb idioms Sentence idioms 3.Use of idioms. Stylistic features Rhetorical features Variations

3.  Something about idioms: idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences. They are colorful, forcible and thought-provoking. Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not easily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. In a broad sense, idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions, proverbs, etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.  Definition: An idiom is a form of expression peculiar to a language, person or group of people. (COD)

4.  9.1 Characteristics of Idioms 1) Semantic unity  Idioms each consist of more than one word, but each of idioms is a semantic unity. Though the various words which make up the idiom have their respective literal meanings, in the idiom they have lost their individual identity, i.e. their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. e.g. the apple of one’s eye.( 掌上明珠 ) ， screw up one’s courage( 鼓起勇气 ) ， know the ropes( 内行 ) ， under the weather( 身体不适；不高兴 ) ， give in ( 屈 服，让步 ), have an axe to grind ( 另有企图 ).

5.  9.1 Characteristics of Idioms 2) Structural stability  Unlike free phrases, the structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable. First, the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. Secondly, the word order cannot be inverted or changed. Thirdly, the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article. Finally, many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.

6. on board( 在船上 )  on the board( 在会上讨论 )  on the boards( 登台做演员 ) leave in the air ( 悬而不决 )  “the ”cannot be omitted tread on air( 洋洋得意 )  we cannot add “the” before air rank and file( 普通成员 )  file and rank (wrong) thick and thin( 不顾艰难险阻  thin and thick (wrong)

7.  Semi-idioms: The idiomaticity of idioms is gradable and may best be thought in terms of a scale, with the “true” idioms established at the upper end and regular combinations at the bottom. In between are the “semi-idioms”.  As to “true” idioms, their meanings cannot be deduced from those of the individual constituents. e.g. leave in the air  As to regular combinations, their meanings can be understood from the literal meanings of the constituents. e.g. make friends with  As to semi- idioms, their meanings are in a way related to the meanings of the constituents but are not themselves explicit. e.g. draw the curtain

8.  9.2 Classification of Idioms Idioms can be classified into idioms nominal in nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal in nature, idioms adverbial in nature and sentence idioms according to the criterion of grammatical functions. 1) Idioms Nominal in Nature 名词性习语（ Noun idioms ） Idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences, e.g. A.adj+noun: high tea ( 正式茶点 ) ， fond dream ( 黄粱美梦 ) ， narrow escape （九死一生） cold shoulder ( 冷淡 ) ， blue chip( 热门股票 ) ， the happy medium( 中 庸之道 ) B ． noun+prep+noun: a fly on the wheel( 自高自大的人 ),an apple of discord( 争端，祸根 ) a bed of thorns( 不愉快的境遇 ) drug in the market ( 市场上的滞销商 品 ) a friend at court( 有权势的朋友 ) ， rule of thumb( 单凭经验来做的方 法 ) the milk of human kindness( 天生的善心；人情味 ) a soldier of fortune ( 冒险家， 军事冒险家 ) a snake in the grass ( 潜伏的危险 / 敌人 )

9.  C ． noun or proper noun +’s+ noun the lion’s share( 最大或最好的份额 ) cat’s paw( 被人利用的人 ) King’s weather( 庆典时的晴朗天气 ) Hobson’s choice( 无选择余地 ) a mare’s nest( 骗人的东西，混乱 )  D. noun+and +noun: wear and tear( 磨损，损耗 ) ways and means （方法，办法） part and parcel （重要或必要的部分） the ins and the outs （种种复杂详情） ups and downs （沉浮，盛衰） the pros and cons （赞成者和反对者，正面和反面的理由）  E. noun+noun: sheet anchor ( 最好的靠山或主要的靠山 ) brain drain （智囊枯竭） a moot point （尚未定论的问题）

10.  2 ） Idioms Adjectival in Nature 形容词性习语 （ Adjective Idioms ） Idioms of this kind function as adjectives, but the constituents are not necessarily adjectives.  A.adj+and+adj high and mighty( 趾高气扬，神气活现 ) fair and square( 正大光明 ) free and easy( 随便的，不拘形式的 ) high and dry( 孤立无援的 ) null and void( 无效的 )

11.  B ． prep+noun on the go( 忙个不停，活跃着 ) on call( 随叫随到的 ) out of sorts( 不舒服的，不高兴的 ) on edge( 易怒，紧张不安 )beyond the pale( 丢脸，失 宠 )beyond the eightball( 处于不利地位的 )  C ． adj or adv +prepositional phrase up to the hammer( 第一流的，极好的 ) wide of the mark( 毫不相关，远未射中目标的 ) wet behind the ears( 缺乏经验的 )

12.  D ． as+adj+as+noun as stiff as a poker( 态度生硬、刻板 ) as meek as a lamb( 非常温顺 ) as slippery as an eel( 油滑的，不可靠的 ) as blind as a bat( 有眼无珠 )  3 ） Idioms Verbal in Nature 动词性习语（ verb idioms ）  A ． Phrasal verbs  a) vi/vt+prep keep after ( 提醒 ) find for （做出有利于 …… 的裁决） look into （调查）

13.  b) v+adv get up （组织、安排 ) put out （扑灭，困扰） make out （理解） block up, black out （封锁）  c ） v+adv+prep sit down under( 忍受 ) fall back on （求助于） cash in on （靠 …… 赚钱，乘机利用） move in on （惊动）

14.  B ． Other verb phrases  a) v+pron /noun make it ( 及时到达，成功 ) follow one’s nose （朝前走） bide one’s time （等待时机） bite one’s tongue off （后悔自己说过的话） blaze the trail （开辟道路） hang fire （延迟） draw a blank （终于失败了） face the music （勇于承担后果） spill the beans （不慎泄密） jump the queue （插队） miss the boat （坐失良机） fit the bill （适合某人的目的） make the grade （成功）

15.  b ） v+adj fall flat( 一败涂地 ) go easy （从容不迫，安闲） sing low （措辞稳健，不固执己见发表见解） come clean （全盘招供）  c ） v+prep phrase beat about the bush( 旁敲侧击 ) fall by the way （中途退出） bark up the wrong tree （攻击错了目标） dip into one’s purse （乱花钱） jump down one’s throat （使某人哑口无言） play to the gallery （讨好观众，迎合低级趣味） breathe down one’s neck （催逼某人干事，严密监视某人行 动） play for one’s own hand （为自己的利益而做）

16.  d) v+n+prep phrase burn the candle at both ends （过分的耗费精力） pull the wool over one’s eyes （蒙蔽某人） put a spoke in one’s wheels （破坏某人计划） keep one’s head above water （免遭灭顶，不背债） have a head on one’s shoulders （有见识，有能力）  e ） v+n+prep dance attendance on ( 奉承 ) make short work of （迅速处理） make a clean breast of （和盘托出） pick holes in （在 …… 找毛病） poke one’s nose into （探听，干涉）

17.  4 ） Idioms adverbial in Nature 副词性习语（ adverb idioms ）  A. noun+and +noun heart and soul ( 全心全意地 ) hammer and tongs （全力以赴地） bag and baggage （完全地，彻底地） tooth and nail ( 竭尽全力 )  B. prep+noun in a breeze ( 轻而易举地 ) by the way （顺便说） with flying colors （出色地，成功地） behind the scenes （在幕后）  C ． prep+noun+and+noun between the devil and the deep blue sea( 进退维谷 ) through thick and thin （在任何情况下，不顾艰难险阻）

18.  5 ） Sentence Idioms 句子式习语 Idioms of this class are complete sentences. They are mainly proverbs and sayings, including colloquialisms and catchphrases, e.g. The mills of God grind slowly( 天网恢恢，疏而不漏 ) He laugh best who laughs last.( 谁笑到最后，谁笑得最好 ) One cannot make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear. （巧妇难为 无米之炊） A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. ( 双鸟在林不如一 鸟在手 ) Nothing venture, nothing have. （不入虎穴，焉得虎子） Never do things by halves. ( 不要半途而废 ) Like attracts like. （物以类聚） That’s the time of day! ( 正逢其时 ; 原来如此 ) Enough is as good as a feast. （知足常乐）

19. Speech is silver, silence is gold. （雄辩是银，沉默是金） Art is long, life is short. ( 人生苦短，艺术无涯 ) The pot calls the kettle black. （责人严而律己宽） His hair is pepper and salt. ( 他的头发已花白了 ) All is not gold that glitters. ( 闪光的并不都是金子 ) Soft fire makes sweet malt. （好事多磨，慢工出细活） Fish begins to stink at the head. （上梁不正下梁歪） Kill the goose that laid the golden egg. ( 杀鸡取卵 ) Never offer to teach fish to swim. （不要班门弄斧） Feed a cold and starve a fever.( 伤风时宜吃，发烧时宜饿 )

20.  9.3 Use of Idioms Many idioms were first created by various kinds of working people. All the idioms were all colloquial and informal and once confined to a limited group of people engaged in the same trade or activity. The following idioms were first used by seamen: in deep water ( 水深火热之中；陷入困境的 ) ， plain sailing ( 一切顺 利 ) ， trim the sail to the wind ( 见风使舵 ) ， tide over ( 度过难 关 ) ， on the rocks ( 遭到失败 ) ， take the helm ( 掌舵 ) ， tip of an ice-berg ( 危险；坏小苗头 ). The following were used by hunters: kill two birds with one stone ( 一箭双雕 ) ， run with the hare and hunt with the hounds ( 两面讨好 ) ， not to let sleeping dogs lie ( 惹是生非 ) ， If you run after two hares, you will catch neither. ( 脚踏两只 船，落水必无疑 ) ， a sly dog ( 暗中寻欢作乐的人 ) ， a lucky dog ( 幸运儿 ) ， to be dog-tired ( 累坏了的 ).

21. The following were used by farmers: a bull in a china shop ( 鲁莽闯祸的人 ) ， plough the sand ( 白费力气 ) ， upset the apple cart ( 破坏某人计划 ) ， have all one’s eggs in one basket ( 孤注一掷 ) ， to strike while the iron is hot ( 趁热打铁 ). The following were used by housewives ： butter up ( 巴结； 讨好 ) ， A new broom sweeps clean ( 新官上任三把火 ) ， have other fish to fry ( 另有事要做 ) ， wash one’s dirty linen in public ( 家丑外扬 ). The following were used by cooks: keep the pot boiling ( 维持 生计 ) ， boil down ( 压缩；归结 ). The following were used by fishermen: jump the bait ( 上钩； 轻易上当 ) ， a fish out of water ( 如鱼出水 ). The following were used by sportsmen: hit below the belt ( 暗 箭伤人 ) ， play fair ( 公正比赛；规规矩矩 ).

22. But they proved terse, vivid, forcible and stimulating so that later they broke out of their bounds and gradually gained wide acceptance. As a result, their earlier stylistic features faded in part and many became part of the common core of the language and are now used in different situations. Yet idioms are generally felt to be informal and some are colloquialisms and slang, therefore inappropriate for formal style.

23.  1) Stylistic Features( 语体特点 ) Idioms have apparent stylistic features such as colloquialisms, slang and literary expressions. A ． Colloquialisms ( 口语性 ) e.g. He likes to let on that he is an expert in electronics. (let on ：设法使人知道 ) Hang in there, the worst is yet to come (hang in there: 坚持住；别放弃 ) Don’t take what he says too much to heart, he is just letting off steam. (let off steam: 发脾气，发泄强烈的感情 ) He is a big wheel, maybe he can help you with your problem. (big wheel: 有影 响的人；重要的人 ) If you’ve got a complaint, the best thing is to see the person concerned and have it out with him. (have it out with: 同 …… 讲个明白 ) Wang Tong is the wrong man for the job; he is always trying to make waves. (make waves: 兴风作浪；捣乱 ) He is well enough intentioned, but he always seems to rub people up the wrong way. (rub sb. up the wrong way: 得罪人 ) For a while rock and roll was all the go; then it was replaced by something else. (all the go: 流行 ) For all that detailed explanation, he still could not get the hang of the passage. (get the hang of: 抓住要点 )

24.  B. Slang( 俚语性 ) e.g. They used to chew the rag after dinner. (chew the rag: 聊天 ) She cooked his goose by giving away the secret. (cook sb’s goose: 彻底毁 了人家的计划或希望 ) I hinted to him that he had outstayed his welcome in my house ， but he didn’t get the message. (get the message: 领会意思 ) This was not the kind of work he was interested in, but he did it just to keep the pot boiling. (keep the pot boiling: 谋生 ) C ． Literary expressions ( 有书面语色彩 ) e.g. Strange things come to pass in troubled times. (come to pass: 发生 ) And be it that indeed that I have erred, mine error remaineth with myself. (be it that: 即使 ) Famine followed in the wake of war. (in the wake of: 紧接着；接踵 ) The police gave the lie to the man who said that he had been at home during the robbery. (give the lie to: 指责某人说谎 ) Shakespeare is a playwright of note. (of note: 著名的 )

25.  2) Rhetorical Features( 修辞特点 ) Idioms manifest rhetorical coloring in such respects as of phonetic manipulation, lexical manipulation and figures of speech. A. Phonetic manipulation ( 语音调节 ) a. Alliteration ( 头韵法 ) e.g. rough and ready( 可接受的；简陋的 ) ， part and parcel （最重要的部分）， chop and change ( 变幻无常 ) ， might and main ( 全力以赴；竭尽全力 ) ， toss and turn ( 辗转反侧 ) ， bag and baggage ( 带着所有财物 ) ， sum and substance ( 要点 ) ， neither fish, flesh, nor fowl ( 不伦不类 ). b. Rhyme ( 押尾韵 ) e.g. fair and square ( 公正的；光明正大的 ) ， kith and kin ( 亲属 ) ， wear and tear ( 磨损；损耗 ) ， toil and moil ( 辛辛苦苦 ) ， by hook and crook ( 不择手段 ) ， A little pot is soon hot. ( 壶小易热；量小 易怒 ) ， A friend in need is a friend indeed. There’s many a slip between the cup and the lip. ( 凡事都难以十拿九稳 ).

26. B. Lexical manipulation( 词汇搭配 ) a. Reiteration of synonyms( 同义词迭用 ) e.g. cut and carve, scream and shout, pick and choose, rough and tough, bits and pieces, ways and means. b. Repetition （词语重复） e.g. by and by, out and out, such and such, neck and neck, face to face, hand in hand, word for word, from time to time. c. Juxtaposition of antonyms （反义词迭用） e.g. here and there, up and down, hit or miss, rain or shine, weal and woe, first and last, high and low, back and forth, sooner or later, from head to foot, from start to finish.

27. C ． Figures of speech （修辞格） a. Simile Simile is a figure of speech in which one thing is likened （把 ---- 比作 ---- ） to another, in such a way as to classify and enhance an image. It is an explicit comparison recognizable by the use of the word like or as. e.g. 那手也不是我所记得的红活圆实的手，却又粗又笨而且 开裂，像是松树皮了。他只是摇头，脸上虽然刻着许多皱纹， 却全然不动，仿佛石像一样。 ------- 闰土的手 ------ 他出去了，母亲和我都叹息他的景观：多子，饥荒，苛 税，兵，匪，官，绅，都苦得他像一个木偶人了。 （鲁迅：《故乡》）

28. O my luve is like a red,red rose That’s newly sprung in June; O my luve is like the melodie, That’s sweetly play’d in tune. (Robert Burns) 啊，我的爱人像一朵红红的玫瑰 六月里迎风初开 啊，我的爱人像一曲甜蜜的歌 弹唱得合拍又柔和。 （王左良译）

29. Some major features of simile: 1) tenor and vehicle appear simultaneously in a sentence. 2 ） tenor and vehicle must share one point of resemblance. 3) simile is created with the help of the word like or as or what, etc.

30. In his dream he saw the tiny figure fall as a fly. ( 在梦中他 看见那小小的人影像苍蝇一般地落了下去 ) A farm lay quite visible, like a white stone lay in water. ( 农 庄清晰可辩犹如白石在水中 ) Time flies like an arrow. ( 光阴似箭 ) He spent money like water. ( 过去他挥金如土 ) The sapphire shall be as blue as the great sea. ( 蓝宝石像大 海一样蓝 ) The pen is to a writer what the gun is to a fighter. ( 作家的 笔犹如战士的枪 ) What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the soul. ( 教育之于心灵犹如雕刻之于大理石 ) He was as poor as a church mouse. ( 他曾经一贫如洗 ) as rich as a Jew ( 富可敌国 ) as plentiful as blackberries ( 雨后春笋 )

31. b. Metaphor Metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another. It is a basic figure in poetry. A comparison is usually implicit; whereas in simile it is explicit. e.g. The sunshine of life is made up of very little beams. ( 生活 的阳光由非常细小的光束构成 ) Some features of metaphor: 1) in metaphor, A is B, without the help of the word like, as or what. 2) tenor and vehicle simultaneously appear in a sentence ; or only tenor appears in a sentence ; or only vehicle appears in a sentence. In the above example, only the vehicle “sunshine of life” appears in the sentence, the tenor “happiness” is concealed in the vehicle. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed and some few to be chewed and digested --- from Bacon’s Of Studies ( 一些书浅尝即可，另一些书却要囫囵吞下，只有少 数的书才值得咀嚼和消化 ) Here ， only the tenor “book” appears without the vehicle “food”.

32. Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good; A shining gloss that vadeth suddenly; A flower that dies when first it begins to bud; A brittle glass that’s broken present--- (Shakespeare) 美只不过是难以确定的浮光掠影 华彩耀目却会突然失去光明 花儿刚刚绽放转瞬即已枯萎 玻璃一经敲碎眼前顿失晶莹 ------ In this example, the tenor “beauty” and the vehicles “a shining gloss, a flower, a brittle glass” simultaneously appear. black sheep ( 败家子 ) ， a dark horse ( 一匹黑马 ) ， grey mare ( 妻管严 ) ， snake in the grass ( 隐藏的敌人；暗箭 )

33. c. Metonymy ( 借代，转喻 ) Metonymy is a figure of speech that consists in using the name of one thing for that of something else with which it is associated. e.g. in the cradle (in one’s childhood) Some features of metonymy: 1) There is no resemblance between A and B. 2) A is to an extent associated with B. 3) Application of B’s name for A. live by one’s pen (live by writing) Have you ever read Jack London? The kettle is boiling. Sometimes the pen may be mightier than the sword. ( 有时文 人比武士更有力量 ) He has a good ear for music. ( 他善于欣赏音乐 ) She has a sharp tongue. ( 她言语尖刻 )

34. d. Synecdoche ( 提喻 ) Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part is used for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing, or the reverse of any of these. Synecdoche is a branch of metonymy. e.g. They were short of hands.( 他 们缺乏人手 ) ， earn one’s bread, He has a smooth tongue. ( 他巧舌如簧 )

35. e. Personification Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing, quality, or idea is represented as a person. e.g. The Rose in the garden slipped her bud, And she laughed in the pride of her youthful blood, As she thought of the gardener standing by--- “He is old---so old; and he soon will die!” (from The Rose and the Gardener) 玫瑰花在园中绽开了她的蓓蕾， 她讪笑着自恃着年轻娇美， 她笑那老园丁竟站在她身边 ----- “ 他已经老了 ----- 老态龙钟，很快便会命丧黄泉。 ” 这里的玫瑰已是一个浅薄的、骄傲的、忘恩负义的姑娘的形象。

36. ---here let them lie Till famine and ague eat them up. (Shakespeare: Macbeth) 让他们去撒谎吧 直到饥荒与痢疾把他们都吃掉。 饥荒与痢疾可导致死亡，用 eat up 把这些 灾祸拟人化。

37. Tree at my window, window tree, My sash is lowered when night comes on; But let there never be curtain drawn Between you and me. (Robert Frost) 树，长在我的窗旁，啊，窗前的树， 当夜幕降临，我放下窗框， 却并不把窗帘拉上， 决不让窗帘把你我分开两处。

38. Failure is the mother of success. Actions speak louder than words. The pot calls the cattle black. Fire and water are good servants, but bad masters. f. Euphemism Euphemism refers to the use of other, usu. less exact but milder or less blunt words or phrases in place of words required by truth or accuracy. e.g. cripple (physically handicapped),

39. old (getting on years; advanced in age; elderly; senior; senior citizens; past one’s prime; feeling one’s age.), mad (soft in the head), cancer (the big C; long illness), madhouse (mental hospital; mental health center), die (join the silent majority; pass away; go to heaven; fall asleep; pass beyond; fade; be called to God; safe in the arms of Jesus; be gone to a better land; go to his long home; kick the bucket; go to sleep forever; be no more.).

40. the need to pass water (t he call of nature), be free with one’s sexual favors (sleep around), go to the rest room (powder one’s nose), free love 非法同居 (trial marriage) ， illegitimate child 私生子 (love child) ， She is pregnant (She has canceled all her social engagement; She is in an interesting condition; She is in a delicate condition; She is knitting little bootees; She is in a family way; She is expecting a child.).

41. penniless (in reduced circumstances; out of pocket; badly off), murder (take care of 处理； dispose of 处置； remove 除掉； rub out 抹掉； put away 除掉； touch off 去掉）, prison( the big house; correctional center), prostitute (a lady of the town; call girl; street walker), striking 罢工 (industrial action; industrial dispute).

42.  3) Variations of Idioms （习语的变化） Idioms have such characteristics as semantic unity and structural stability ， they do not allow changes as a rule. But structural stability is not absolute. In actual context, idioms do experience grammatical changes such as different forms of verbs, agreement of personal pronouns and number and so on. We may find changes in constituents of idioms: addition, deletion, replacement, position-shifting, dismembering, etc.  A. Replacement ( 替代 )  a. verb  b. noun  c. adjectives  d. adverb or preposition  e. article, pronoun, numeral  B. Addition or deletion  C. Position-shifting  D. Shortening  E. Dismembering

43. 1. Say whether the following statements are true or false. 1) An idiom contains at least two words. 2) Idioms are fixed in structure and so can never be changed. 3) Idioms are usually difficult to understand because the meanings of idioms are not in many cases the total of individual words. 4) Stylistically speaking, most idioms are neither formal nor informal. 5) Some idioms deny analysis in terms of grammar. 6) All idioms are used in their figurative senses. 7) Since each idiom is a semantic whole, each can be replaced by a single word. 8) Idioms are characterized by terseness, expressiveness and vividness. 9) Semantic unity and structural stability are general features of idioms, but there are many exceptions. T—F—T—T—T—F—F—T--T

44. 2. What is the advantage of classifying idioms according to their grammatical functions? In many cases, the forms of idioms are not identical with their functions. Even though we know the meaning of idioms, we may not use them in the right way if we do not know their grammatical functions. For example, heart and soul is a noun phrase, but functions as adverbial: “We must serve the people heart and soul.” If we used it as subject or object, it would be wrong. Classifying idioms according to their functions solves this problem.

45. 3. What are phrasal verbs? What are the similarity and difference between a verb phrase and a phrasal verb? A phrasal verb is a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a particle (adverb or preposition or both) such as bring up, get down, come up with. A verb phrase is any phrase functioning as a verb, for example, call it a day, make both ends meet, look after. Verb phrases include phrasal verbs.