1. Federal Republic of Nigeria Government and Politics

2. CIA World Fact Book https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/ni.html https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/ni.html

3. Key Concepts Patrons are often linked to clients by ethnic, religious, or other cultural ties but these ties have generally benefited only a small elite  prebendalism. Legacy of colonial rule and military domination  weak state governments and a strong central government. State institutions of governance and policymaking operate within the context of a strong central government dominated by a powerful chief executive.

4. Key Concepts Nigeria’s prolonged experience with military rule has resulted in a policy process that is based more on top-down directives than on consultation, political debate, and legislation. Because of the shift back and forth between civilian and military rule, Nigeria has very few established institutions to military structure political life,, regardless of who is in power. Nigeria’s interaction with the West has created a conflict between modern and traditional beliefs Throughout its history, Nigeria has substituted one form of commodity dependence for another, and the oil industry overwhelms all other sectors of the economy.

5. Authority and Political Power National Question The differences run DEEP Neither Nigeria’s leaders not its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how. How should the country be governed? Should Nigeria even remain as one nation?

6. Authority and Political Power Constitutionalism the acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles Nigeria’s 1 st Constitution was written in 1914… most recent is from 1999 (heavily amended). Attempts to est. a basic plan for the operation of govt, but none have lasted long. Military and civilians both have no problem disobeying and suspending constitutional principles.

7. Authority and Political Power Legitimacy Establishing the country’s legitimacy is a problem. Strong tendency towards fragmentation The military is one of the few truly national orgs in Nigeria (problems for democracy, yet creates stability  leading to the legitimacy of the military’s right to rule. Many citizens have little or no trust in their leaders ability to run an efficient or trustworthy state. Contradictory influences (western tradition of rule of law from British colonialism THEN military force after independence).

8. Authority and Political Power Legitimacy The corruption associated with Babangida (’85 -’93) and Abacha (’93 – ’98) alienated citizens. Civilian rule has been tainted because of skepticism of the govt. There have been democratic movements over the last fifty years, so there is still hope under the cynicism.

9. Authority and Political Power Legitimacy In the north, sharia is a source of legitimacy since the fall of military rule in ’99 The federal govt has cracked down on Hisbah, enforcing a national ban on ethnic militias, and the secular, federally controlled police force has little interests in enforcing the harshest strictures of sharia. There is a trend towards moderating/modernizing sharia

10. Political Traditions The Precolonial Era (800-1860) Trade connections Early influence of Islam Kinship-based politics Complex political identities Democratic impulses

11. Political Traditions The Colonial Era (1860-1960) Authoritarian Rule The interventionists state Individualism Christianity Intensification of ethnic politics

12. Political Traditions The Era since Independence (1960-present) Parliamentary-style government replaced by a presidential system Intensification of ethnic conflict Military rule Personalized rules/corruption Federalism Economic dependence on oil

13. Political Culture Patron-Clientelism (prebendalism) State control/rich civil society Tensions between modernity and tradition Religious conflict Geographic Influences (handout)

14. Political and Economic Change Nigeria’s history can be divided into three parts. Pre-colonial Colonial Era since Independence The sources of change vary with each era  but have effected Nigeria nonetheless

15. Political and Economic Change The Pre-Colonial Period Era (800-1860) The savanna areas of the north invited easy trade through the Saharan Berber traders up to northern Africa resulting in Cultural diffusion  gradual change to the conversion to Islam. Fulani came to the north through jihad (not gradual). Established the Sokoto Caliphate. The Sokoto Caliphate traded with Europeans, eventually succumbing to British colonial rule by 1900. Put in place the tradition of an organized central government based on religious faith

16. Political and Economic Change Pre-Colonial Era (800-1860) In the South, people generally lived more communally and close to the Atlantic Ocean  Contact with the Europeans  Christianity. This European contact led to the slave trade from the 16 th -19 th century.

17. Political and Economic Change The Colonial Era (1860-1960) The British imposed indirect rule The colony was established as a trading outlet (natural resources and cheap human labor) British influences was strong in the south (due to the ports along the coast) Left the North’s govt structures in tact  giving more power to elites and reinforced their tendencies to seek personal benefit from their positions. Emphasized differences between north and south Introduction of Western-style Education through Christian missionaries  literate population, reinforced cleavages (elites receiving more benefit from education)

18. Political and Economic Change Modern Nigeria (1960-present) The British aided the transition to independence 1966: Parliamentary govt was replaced by a military dictatorship 1979: Olusegun Obasanjo willingly stood down for a democratically-elected president, Shehu Shagari (who was forced out of office in 1983 by a military coup led by General Muhammed Buhari. Two more coups kept Nigeria under military dictatorship until 1999  election brought Obasanjo back to power (this time as a civilian).\ Each election has been rife with fraud and violence (specifically 2007)  National Question

19. Political and Economic Change Modern Nigeria (1960-present) Ethnic identities have become the basis for conflict in Nigeria. Institutionalization of corruption among the political elite (which was made worse by 2 military presidents (General Ibrahim b. Babangida ‘85-’93 and General Sani Abacha – ’93-’98) Each military leader from 1966-1999 promised to transfer power to civilian hands once the country was “stable”. In 1993 it seemed stable when civilian moshood Abiola won the presidential election… General Babangida annulled the election (only to lose power to Sani Abacha in a military coup later that year. When Abach died suddenly in 1998, a middle belt Muslim (Abdulsalami Abubakar) was an interim president. 1999 Obasanjo was elected president, reelected in ’03, as a former military general both elections were characterized by fraud.

20. Citizens, Society, and the State Societal characteristics of Nigeria that make democratization a challenge: Poverty 60% below the poverty line, many in absolute poverty (no means to actually survive Gap between the Rich and Poor Few people are wealthy, most are poor. The economy shows few signs of economic growth Health Issues High rates of HIV/AIDS  high costs to the Nigerian economy (as well as society) Govt heavily relies on underfunded NGOs Obasanjo administration provided clinics (served a few thousand while there are several million suffers. Literacy 68% literacy rate (male literacy 76%, female literacy 61%

21. Citizens, Society, and the State Cleavages One of the most fragmented societies in the world. Cleavages basedon ethnicity, religion, region, urban/rural differences, and social class Like in Russia, the etnic conflicts have undermined the basic legitimacy of the govt

22. Citizens, Society, and the State Cleavages – Graphic Organizer Ethnicity Religion Region/North v. south Urban/Rural differences Social Class

23. Citizens, Society, and the State Public Opinion and Political Participation Prebendalism/Patron-Clientelism Most participation takes place through the patron-client system Public offices are treated as person fiefdoms  large patronage networks based on personal loyalty Local govt ofificals gain support from villages through dispensing favors, and they in turn receiv favors for supporting their patron bosses. Corruption

24. Citizens, Society, and the State Public Opinion and Political Participation Civil Society Many formal interest groups and informal voluntary associations have actively sought to influence political decisions. Many have strengthened since 1999 Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni people (MOSOP) – founded by dissident Ken Saro-Wiwa in the 1990s – worked to apply national laws to secure financial benefits for the Ogoni in the Niger Delta and to hold foreign-operated oil companies to environmental standards Trade unions and professional organizations have been active in trying to protect the rights of their members Voting Behavior Nigerians have been voting in national elections since 1959, but many have been canceled/postponed by the military or fraudulent Parties are numerous and fluid formed around candidates 2/3 of eligible voters vote.

25. Citizens, Society and the State Attitudes Toward Government Reading Protests Participation, and Social Movements Reading

26. Political Institutions Linkage Institutions – Political Parties Regionally and Ethnically based. Nigeria’s extreme factionalism led to the development of so many parties that it was almost impossible to create a coherent party system. Parties also form around powerful individuals.

27. Political Institutions Linkage Institutions – Political Parties Political Parties The People’s Democratic Party (PDP) Obasanjo, Umaru Yar’Adua and Goodluck Jonathan Most popular, however due to so much corruption, hard to determine how much support they really have. All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) General Muhammadu Buuhari Action Congress (AC) Merger of Alliance for Democracy, the Justice Party, the Advance Congress of Democrats, and several other minor parties. Atiku Abubakar

28. Political Institutions Linkage Institutions – Political Parties Independent National Election Commission Independent organization to run elections. In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by earning at least 5% of the votes in 2/3 of the states in the December 1998 elections  cutting in half the number of eligible parties. The INEC was widely accused of corruption in the election fo 2007

29. Political Institutions Linkage Institutions – Elections and Electoral Procedures National Elections Presidential Elections If a candidate doesn’t win an outright majority, a second ballot election may take place. Must receive 25% of all the votes cast in 2/3 of the states. Legislative Elections Senate 109 Senators (3 from each of 36 states – one from federal capital territory, Abuja) Elected by direct popular vote House of Representatives 539 Representatives elected from Single member districts by plurality vote – no runoffs. Regional representation – wide array of ethnicities that try to form coalitions. Legislative policy power is very weak.

30. Political Institutions Linkage Institutions – Election Fraud During the April 2003 legislative election – about a dozen people died and several politicians were assassinated The INEC made an attempt to cleanse the electoral process when it declared almost 6m names were fraudulent (on voter rolls) International teams observed the election to be corrupt (ballot boxes begin vandalized, stole, and stuffed with fraudulent votes) 2007 Elections  Worse Obasanjo tried to change the 1999 Constitution to allow him to run again (National Assembly did NOT ratify) INEC disqualified VP Abubakar from running for Pres. (Supreme Court declared the INEC had no such power).  had to print last minute ballots. No privacy for voters. Voters protested  approx. 200 deaths.

31. Political Institutions Linkage Institutions – Election Fraud Positive Development  President Yar-Adua allowed the tribunals set up to challenge the election results to operate freely…. By 2008… 6 governors, over a dozen senators, dozens of local-govt officials had to leave office for various misbehaviors in the electoral process. HOWEVER – the tribunal rejected petitions by Buhari and Abubakar to have the results of the presidential election invalidated.

32. Political Institutions Linkage Institutions – Interest Groups Labor Unions Before military oppression of the 1980s, they were independent and politically powerful Babangida limited their influence through CORPORATISM 2007 gained power. Nigerian Labor Congress had a successful general strike for the governments hike in fuel prices and taxes Business Interests Tended to work with military regimes (sharing the spoils of corruption) Few operate outside govt control Human Rights Groups University students, teacher, civil liberties orgs, professional groups (doctors/lawyers) protests the abuses of Babangida and Abacha. Promote democratic reform.

33. Political Institutions The Executive 1979 – change to Presidential system Belief that a popularly elected president could symbolize unity and rise above the weak party system. Followed US pres model (2 term limit) 2007 first time power was transitioned peacefully from one civilian to another (no matter how flawed the election)

34. Political Institutions The Executive Under Military Rule Not all 7military leaders ruled the same. All promised a transition to democracy Only 2 gave power to elected leaders (Obasanjo and Abubakar) Buhari, Babangida, and Abacha were known for their use of repressive tactics Power was concentrated in the hands of the executive (appointed senior officials with out legislative approval and neither branched checked them. Patrimonialism President is the head of an intricate patron-client system and dispense government jobs and resources as rewards to supporters Result  cabinet positions, bureaucracy, all parts of the government jobs are part of the president’s patronage system.

35. Political Institutions The Executive Bureaucracy British put in a lavish civil service system, and has grown in the last decades. Belief that bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt and inefficient. Bribery is common – jobs awarded through pre-bendalism. Para-statals Many govt agencies are corporations owned by the state and designated to provide commercial and social welfare services. Theoretically they are privately owned – but their boardsare appointed by the govt ministers (pre-bendalism) Commonly provide utilities like water, electricity, public transportation, etc. Others control industries (steel, defense products, petroleum State Corporatism The Para-statals provide important economic and social functions – insuring that the state controls private interests as well.

36. Political Institutions The Legislature Parliamentary system in place until 1979  replaced with a presidential system with a bicameral legislature – collectively known as the National Assembly. Both senators and representatives serve 4-year renewable terms. Senate Upper House, 109 senators (3 from each of 36 districts, one from federal capital territory) Directly elected by popular vote House of Representatives 360 members from single-member districts Elected by plurality

37. Political Institutions The Legislature Under military govts had almost no power. Under civilian control, only recently have they become an effective check on the president’s power.

38. Political Institutions The Judiciary History During the early years of independence the Judiciary had a great deal of autonomy. Courts combined British Common Law with some traditional/customary law (i.e. sharia in the north) Known for rendering objective decisions, operating independently from the executive. Years of military rule have ravaged the court systems  Judiciary was undermined by the military decrees that nullified court decisions Generals set up quasi –judicial tribunals outside the regular system Judicial review was suspended RESULT: Many of today’s judges are not well versed in law and render decisions that are manipulated by the govt.

39. Political Institutions The Judiciary (TODAY) Judicial Review exists in theory Courts at federal and state levels  Highest court is the Supreme Court Sharia challenges the structure of the court….. Controversial sharia courts that operate in 12 of the predominantly Muslim northern states. The establishment of tribunals to hear accusations of voting fruad during the election of 2007 is an indication that Nigeria’s institutions are taking the rule of law seriously.

40. Political Institutions Military Strong policymaking force in Nigeria (however, they have lost credibility as a temporary, objective org that keeps order and brings stability. Military in government VS. Military in barracks Internal discord within the military (military presidents had to keep a close eye on other military leaders. Military has often blocked democratic reforms Military is one of the few institutions in the country that is truly national in character.

41. Public Policy Oil: Strength or Weakness Rentier state – receiving income by exporting oil and leasing out oil fields to foreign countries. The earnings from (above) are called rents. Those demanding of the govt are called rent-seekers… those winning the favor of the govt do so through political connections through the patron- client system. Most Nigerians struggle along without much access, and participate in the informal economy (unreported incomes from small-scale trade and subsistence agriculture)

42. Public Policy Structural Adjustment Nigeria turned to international orgs to help pay off its debt in the 1980s (World Bank and the International Monetary Fund) Babangida’s regime developed this plan including the restructuring and diversifying of the Nigerian economy to decrease its dependence on oil This “shock treatment” had mixed results Nigeria couldn’t keep up with its debt payments, so timelines have been restructured Private economic sector has not grown significantly Debt remains problem, especially since oil prices decreased after 2008.

43. Public Policy Reactions to the Global Economic Crisis of 2008 Didn’t suffer as much as some other countries… Few, strong banks (due to initiatives put in place by Obasanjo) Sizeable debts paid off from the Structural Adjustment Program Sharp decrease in price of oil did damage to the economy (devaluation of Nigerian currency) Nigerian Stock Exchange declined, housing market dropped, little tourism is now nonexistent Nigeria’s inability to provide power continues (Obasanjo tried privatizing power companies, but Yar’Adua reversed this) Bright spot… Agriculture (strong production and local food and tobacco prices remained high comparatively)

44. Federal Character There is a goal in Nigeria to reach a “Federal Character” Provisions in the const to promote a “federal character” Neg. side effect  bloat and promote corruption within bureaucracy and COMPETITION Southerners feel that true federalism will exist when regions control their own resources (meaning the fed govt shouldn’t redistribute oil revenues. Also want police duties at the local/state level Northerners do not support the “true federalism” becau.se they do not have as many resources/revenue to share

45. Democratization Positives: Privatization of some formerly public enterprises (limiting the economic control of the government) Programs to alleviate poverty Public wages increase (hope that well paid employees will be less susceptible to bribery) Money that Abacha took has been returned (some) Financial reserves have grown due to increase in price of oil

46. Democratization Signs of the coming of democracy… Some checks and balances between government branches. Some independent decisions of the courts Revival of civil society Independent media Peaceful succession of power Improving Freedom House scores