1. 1 7th Colloquium of the IUCN Academy of Environmental Law Wuhan, China ---------------------------------------------- Water / Freshwater Resources: Law, Policy and Governance Singapore Case Study ------------------------------------ Dr KOH Kheng-Lian Emeritus Professor Faculty of Law National University of Singapore; Director, Asia- Pacific Centre for Environmental Law; 469G Bukit Timah Road Eu Tong Sen Building Singapore 259776 Tel: (65) 6516 6246 Fax: (65) 68721937/ 67790979 E-mail: lawkohkl@nus.edu.sg

2. 2 Stop Press! T he Centre for Aquatic Science Research (CASR) Dutch PM Jan Peter Balkenende attended launch on Friday, 23 Oct 09 Clean Water Venture: Joint Initiative by Singapore-Delft Water Alliance comprising NUS, PUB and Delft Hydraulics. Dr Yaacob Ibrahim of MEWR said “It is very important to ensure our water quality is being monitored on a continuous basis.

3. 3 Dutch PM pointed out similar challenges to water management between N & S’pore: (1) half of N below sea level – 7 m below sea level. (2) melting ice from North Sea – demand new action for water management. (3) uncertainty, unpredictability: exchange knowledge, have shared value.

4. 4 Clean Water Venture Projects of CASR Green Roofs – retains storm water and lessens chances of flooding (keeps homes cool – integrated approach). – experimenting with plant- based material to remove contaminants – eg dried seaweed from Labrador and Sentosa

5. 5 contd: - Weather monitoring: provide rain forecasts 6 to 12 hours in advance instead of 1 hr. - maximise water catchment by giving more time to plan for heavy downpour (currently water is released into the sea when reservoir is full). Many of the projects take into consideration impact of climate change (infra)

6. 6 Introduction I.Singapore’s Water Consumption, Water Supply & Challenges II.Water Policies, Laws, Governance & Management A. Relevant Policies & Laws (a) International Context (b) ASEAN Context (c) Singapore Policy & Legal Frameworks B. Singapore’s Water Governance & Management Conclusion

7. 7 Introduction ---------------------------------------------- PUB (Singapore Utilities Board) Awards: 2006: “Water Agency of the Year Award” at the Global Water Awards ( organized by Global Water Intelligence), Dubai. 2007: “Stockholm Industry Water Award” The Award recognises innovative corporate development of water and wastewater process technologies, contributions to environmental improvement through improved performance in production processes, new products and other significant contributions by businesses and industries that help to improve the world water situation.

8. 8 2009: PUB’s Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS) won “Water Project of the Year” at the Global Water Awards, Zurich Awarded for water technology and environmental protection $3.65 billion is superhighway – conveys used water from homes and industries through 48 km tunnel sewer and runs 20 – 55 m below groundto a centralized water reclamation plant for treatment – Changi Water Reclamation Plant Capable of treating 800,000 cubic m (176 m gallons) of used water a day to int’l stds. Integral part of water management of NEWater (infra)

9. 9 Relevant Facts and Figures Singapore is a 646 sq km, heavily urbanised, island city- state in Southeast Asia, located at the southern tip of the Malayan Peninsula between Malaysia and Indonesia. Singapore has a total land area of 699 km² and 193 km of coastline. It is separated from Indonesia by the Singapore Strait and from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor (2008)Singaporeurbanisedislandcity- stateSoutheast Asia Malayan PeninsulaMalaysiaIndonesiaSingapore StraitStraits of Johor http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Singapore Population: 4, 839.4 (2008) Source: http://www.entersingapore.info/sginfo/country- facts.php Warm and fairly humid summer temperatures throughout the year (approximately 30ºC/86ºF during the day and 23ºC/74ºF in the evening). There is no distinct wet/dry season. Most rain falls during the northeast monsoon (November to January) and showers are usually sudden and heavy. Source: http://www.worldtravelguide.net/country/250/climate/South-East- Asia/Singapore.html

10. 10 I. Water Consumption, Water Supply & Challenges ------------------------------------------------------- A. Water Consumption Domestic water demand is 724, 000 cubic metres per day (157 litres per capita per day), 2007. Aim to reduce to 155 litres a day.

11. 11 Singapore Consumption Trends Accessed on 28 May 07 -

12. 12 B. Water Supply The "four tap" strategy aims to reduce reliance on foreign supply and to diversify Singapore's water sources: 1. Reservoirs and catchments About 680,000 m3 (or 149.58 million gallons) of Singapore’s water consumption is sourced from reservoirs and catchment areas in the city. Represents about 60% of the country’s daily needs. 2005 - fourteen raw water reservoirs in Singapore (see map). Since 2005 – 3 more added. – Reservoir in the City (Marina Reservoir completed end 2008); Punggal & Serangoon. Reservoirs. Marina Reservoir will meet 10% of Singapore’s current water demand (infra). Source: http://www.eco-asia.info/content/en/sp-marina-barrage,http://www.eco-asia.info/content/en/sp-marina-barrage accessed 15 September 2009

13. 13 Primary domestic source of water is rainfall, collected in reservoirs or water catchment areas.waterrainfallreservoirswater catchment areas Prior to the opening of the Marina Bay reservoir, rainfall supplied approximately 30% of Singapore's water; that should now be about 47% due to the additional catchment area.

14. 14 2. Desalination 13 September 2005, first desalination plant by. SingSpring is majority-owned by CitySpring Infrastructure Trust (CitySpring).13 September2005desalinationCitySpring Infrastructure TrustCitySpring Located at Tuas, can produce 30 million gallons of water (136,380 m³) each day. Worth S$200 million, it is one of the biggest in the world and meets 10 percent of the country's water needs.Tuasgallons Sea water is forced through plastic membranes with microscopic pores to extract dissolved salts. Silt is removed by dousing the seawater with chemicals that coagulate the particles. Brime is discharged into the sea – experiment being done as to impact and what can be done ( see Tan Yong Soon & others, Clean, Green and Blue ( 2009) ). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resources_of_S ingapore

15. 15 3. NEWater NEWater factories - Bedok, KrangiBedok and Seletar, and Water Reclamation Plants, producing about 32 million US gallons per day (1.4 m³/s). These four NEWater plants can meet 15 % of Singapore's water needs.Seletar Some of the NEWater is used at wafer fabrication plants and other non-potable applications in industries. The rest is fed into nearby reservoirs.wafer fabricationpotable Fifth NEWater plant at Changi in 2010 - capacity of 50 million gallons per day, NEWater will be able to meet 30% of Singapore's water requirements through recycling.Changi2010

16. 16 Today, Singapore has water flowing out of the 4 taps and will continue to do so because of the nation's policy of ensuring its four water sources: reflects national security. It will invest about S$330 million over the next five years to develop the local water industry. - CNA /ls 4.Imported Water from Johor, Malaysia (infra)

17. 17 C. Water Challenges & Solutions (Current & Past) 1. Climate impact and adaptation – Water Supply: Impact - Increase in annual precipitation for Southeast Asia with a median of +7% - Increase in the frequency of extreme warm and wet seasons and decrease in the frequency of extreme dry seasons Programmes Expanding Local Catchments – Marina Reservoir – Punggol & Serangoon Reservoirs Diversifying into drought-resistant water sources – NEWater – Desalinated water

18. 18 Climate Change Impact Expected increase in intensity of extreme rainfall Expected sea level rise (up to 59 cm) Drainage Adaptation Policies/Programmes Review of drainage design criteria Set platform level for land reclamation at least 1.25m above highest recorded tide level Locate key infrastructures at least 1-m above highest recorded flood level Drainage infrastructure and improvement programmes Building up Rainfall Forecast Capability Source: http://www2.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/c40/c40tokyo/pdf/session2/singapore.pdf

19. 19 2. Multiplicity of uses- domestic, commercial, industrial, sanitation (competing). 3. Increase supply of water from non- conventional sources, such as desalination and water reclamation, to at least 25% of Singapore's water demand. 4.Reduce per capita domestic water consumption to 155 litres a day by 2012. 5.Urbanization, fast changing socio- economic conditions (if population reaches 6 million).

20. 20 5. Shared water resources with Johor – tension (infra) 6. How to Price Water (Impact on Users) - Important leverage in managing our water demand. - Reflects scarcity and the high incremental costs of additional water supplies. The Water Conservation Tax (WCT) is charged to encourage prudent use of water. - Currently, potable water and used water are priced separately. As potable water and used water are now part of the same water loop, it is timely to view both as a single product. PUB considering moving towards charging a single price, as this better reflects the holistic manner in managing water resources.

21. 21 7. Sanitary Appliance Fee (SAF) – charge per unit. Feedback that the SAF confusing, since having more sanitary appliances may not result in more used water being discharged. Charging on the basis of volume of water used will thus be more equitable. Currently, used water fees have two components, comprising the SAF and Waterborne Fee (WBF). PUB considering restructuring the SAF and WBF into a single volumetric fee, and charging a single price for both potable water and used water. The domestic water tariff has a two-tier structure, with the threshold between the two tiers set at 40 cubic metres per month. A higher price is charged for the second tier to discourage excessive use. Based on current average per capita consumption of 158 litres per day, 40 cubic metres would be sufficient for large families of up to 8 persons. The majority of households in Singapore consume less than 40 cubic metres monthly. Hence, 40 cubic metres is a reasonable threshold, beyond which a higher tariff applies in order to encourage water conservation. http://app.mewr.gov.sg/web/contents/Contents.aspx?ContId=844

22. 22 8. Flood Prevention and Control Over the past 30 years, PUB invested $2 billion in drainage infrastructure - reduced flood prone areas from more than 3,000 ha in the 1970s to 127 ha today. The flood on 19 Dec 2006 was a good test of the efficacy of drainage system. Despite receiving the third highest rainfall in 75 years on that day, the majority of the drainage system held up well, with some flooding in isolated pockets of Singapore. PUB has an ongoing drainage improvement program to reduce flood-prone areas from 127 ha to 66 ha by 2011. As it appears that we could see more instances of extreme weather, PUB will accelerate the drainage improvement program. These will be completed within the next 3 years instead of 5 years as originally planned, at a total cost of about $175 mil ($176.3 mil). See “Clean Water Venture” of CASR (Green Roofs,supra)

23. 23 9. Warning System- to strengthen early warning system & flood alleviation measures. - Every occurrence of extreme weather is a test of the drainage system and the flood alleviation measures that PUB has put in place. At places where they have not, PUB will investigate and implement long-term measures in Bedok North, Commonwealth and Joan Road areas. While the long-term measures are underway, PUB will also put in place interim measures. The aim is to minimise and prevent recurrence in the same location. See latest research, early warning measures, 6 to 12 hrs in advance, supra.

24. 24 10. Wastewater system Singapore has grown over last 20 years, so has its waste problems. To meet the environmental demands associated with continued economic and population growth, PUB sought to replace the entire sanitary services infrastructure with one that can handle wastewater needs for the next 100 years. PUB, in joint venture, has helped to meet this challenge through the island’s new Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS), a complex and groundbreaking undertaking that surpasses the existing infrastructure in reliability, ease and economy of operation. The gravity-fed, island-wide system—with built-in growth capacity and water quality improvements—will be critical to handling Singapore's burgeoning waterfront renaissance.The project, which features contractors and design consultants from eight countries, "is truly an international effort," And it's not a piecemeal effort. It's a complete conversion to a new infrastructure.

25. 25 contd: Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (Phase 1), Singapore US$2.5 billion deep tunnel sewer system to meet Singapore's needs for wastewater collection, treatment and disposal for the next 100 years. Phase 1 of the scheme was completed in 2008, and comprises a 48km- long deep tunnel, a centralised water reclamation plant, a network of link sewers and a deep-sea outfall. Who is responsible? PUB is the client. CH2M Hill and Parsons Brinckerhoff conducted the feasibility study. MWH provided design and construction supervision of the outfall. Phase one of the DTSS project involved 49 main contractors and consultants, and more than 300 sub-contractors and suppliers.

26. 26 The deep tunnel sewer system (DTSS) is a major step towards ensuring the long-term sustainability of Singapore's water resources. With a diameter of up to six metres, the 48km-long North Tunnel was built in six phases along a specially selected route at a depth of up to 50 metres below ground, using trenchless technology. The colossal engineering challenge is matched only by PUB's visionary foresight. The Changi Water Reclamation Plant, completed in 2008, will initially treat 800,000m3/d of gravity-fed wastewater from the deep tunnel. The plant is mainly built underground, and its compact design means it occupies less than a third of the area needed for a conventional layout. The treated effluent will be used to produce NEWater at a unique second plant, which will be built on the roof of the Changi WRP. The implementation of the DTSS will have far-reaching effects beyond wastewater treatment and reuse. Land comes at a premium in Singapore, and the decommissioning of old pumping stations and wastewater treatment plants will free up valuable land for other uses. http://www.globalwaterawards.com/2009/tunnel.html

27. 27 The Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS) was conceived as a long term solution to meet the needs for used water collection, treatment and disposal to serve the development of Singapore through the 21st Century. Today, Singapore is 100% sewered. However, as we continue to grow and urbanise, we will need to build more pumping stations and expand water reclamation plants to collect and treat used water. These take up precious land and require huge investments in costly equipment. Thus, in 2000, PUB started building the DTSS to cater to Singapore's increasing population and expanding economy. The DTSS comprises a 48 km north tunnel stretching from Kranji to Changi, a water reclamation plant with a capacity of 176 million gallons (800,000 cubic metres) per day, a 5 km sea outfall at Changi, and some 60 km of link sewers.

28. 28

29. 29 The DTSS will free up prime land currently used to site the existing six water reclamation plants and about 130 pumping stations, as well as the buffer land surrounding the water reclamation plants. The compact design of the Changi Water Reclamation Plant occupies about one-third of the land area required for a conventional plant. At the same time, the centralisation of the used water treatment at Changi Water Reclamation Plant will be more cost effective.

30. 30 Tunneling works for the North Tunnel, as well as the Spur Tunnel, which can cater for future Tunneling works for the North Tunnel, as well as the Spur Tunnel, which can cater for future expansion of the DTSS, have been completed. The tunnels with diameters of up to 6 metres were built at depths ranging from 20m to 50m metres below ground. A network of smaller link-sewers were built to link the existing network of sewers to the tunnels. More than half of Singapore's used water will eventually be directed through the North Tunnel to the Changi Water Reclamation Plant for treatment. Part of the treated effluent will then be discharged through the deep sea outfall into Straits of Singapore. The rest of the effluent will be channeled to NEWater factories. In this way, PUB will 'close the water loop'.expansion of the DTSS, have been completed.

31. 31 The tunnels with diameters of up to 6 metres were built at depths ranging from 20m to 50m metres below ground. A network of smaller link-sewers were built to link the existing network of sewers to the tunnels. More than half of Singapore's used water will eventually be directed through the North Tunnel to the Changi Water Reclamation Plant for treatment. Part of the treated effluent will then be discharged through the deep sea outfall into Straits of Singapore. The rest of the effluent will be channeled to NEWater factories. In this way, PUB will 'close the water loop'.

32. 32 The DTSS will be constructed in two phases. The first phase of the project, being implemented now, comprises of 48 kilometres of tunnels stretching from Kranji to Changi; a 800,000 cubic metres per day water reclamation plant with a 5 kilometres long sea outfall at Changi and some 50 kilometres of link-sewers. It is scheduled to be fully operational by end 2008. The second phase will consist of a deep tunnel to Tuas, a water reclamation plant there with sea outfall into the Straits of Singapore, link sewers and an extension to the Changi water reclamation plant. This phase will be implemented after the first phase when there is a requirement to handle more used water arising from developments. http://www.pub.gov.sg/dtss/Pages/default.aspx

33. 33 11.Brine Discharge from Desalination Plant “Currently, brine is discharged into the sea. Often, scientific models are used to determine how far offshore the brine must be discharged so that tidal discharges dilutes the brine and minimizes its impact on the marine ecosystem. Although this method is widely used and is effective, an alternative method might be to close thee brine loop in the same way the water loop was closed with NEWater. (Tan Yong Soon & Others, Clean, Green and Blue, pp 157 - 158). Research is being conducted. 12.Run-offs from building construction.

34. 34 II.Water Policies, Laws & Governance ----------------------------------------------------------------- A. Policies & Legal Frameworks Singapore’s water policies reflect some of the elements in international/regional instruments and initiatives, eg, UN MDG, Agenda 21, WSSD Plan of Implementation, ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resources Management, World Water Forum, ADB water policy, etc (infra). PUB Vision: “ Water for All” - diversification; R& D in used water technologies; water quality and international standards; “Conserve” – efficient use of water, reduced water use in non domestic sectors; “Value” – behaviour change in water use, value water resources; “Enjoy” –3Ps (public, private and people) generate awareness; improve quality of life. http://www.amic.org.sg/new/files/WaterSummit.pdf

35. 35 (a). International Context 1. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs),2000 – Singapore Adopted MDGs – 1/3 of the Goals depend on Water, eg MDG 7 “Ensure environmental sustainability” The goal is “half, by 2015, the propotionof people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation.” Goh Chok Tong (former PM), gave examples of Singapore’s contributions towards the MDGs: “Water will be a critical resource in the 21st century and we have singled it out as an area for critical attention. Through events such as the Singapore International Water Week, the Lee Kuan Yew Water Prize and the newly formed Institute for Water Policy, Singapore hopes to promote innovative solutions to address water shortages around the world. In August 2007, Singapore and the World Health Organisation (WHO) signed a partnership agreement to jointly promote the safe management of drinking water globally. Singapore’s Public Utilities Board (PUB) is also working with the Asia Pacific Water Forum and Asian Development Bank to help the region attain water and sanitation-related MDGs.” http://app.mfa.gov.sg/2006/idx_fp.asp?web_id=10Singapore International Water WeekPublic Utilities Board (PUB) http://app.mfa.gov.sg/2006/idx_fp.asp?web_id=10

36. 36 2. Agenda 21, see Chapter 18, Protection of the Quality and Supply of Freshwater Resources - “Application of Integrated Approaches to the Development, Management and Use of Water Resources”. S’pore adopted Agenda 21: The relevant programme areas for Singapore: “ A. Integrated water resources development and management; B. Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems; … D. Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation; E. Water and sustainable urban development;.. G. Impacts of climate change on water resources.”

37. 37 3. Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) (Continuation of Agenda 21): “Increase access to sanitation to improve human health … prioritizing water and sanitation in national sustainabledevelopment strategies ….”. The provision of clean drinking water and adequate sanitation is necessary to protect human health and the environment. In this respect, we agree to halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safedrinking water (as outlined in the Millennium Declaration) and the proportion of people who do not have access to basic sanitation, which would include actions at all levels to: (a) Develop and implement efficient household sanitation systems;…” Provision of clean drinking water and adequate sanitation by 2015 - Singapore has already achieved these; for sanitation – last night soil buckets phased out in Jan 87’. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English /WSSD_PlanImpl.pdf

38. 38 4. Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 (Singapore ratified in 1994) [Note: Non- water Agreement but relevant as ecosystem approach -protecting the source eg rivers, wetlands as critical part of water mgt.] CBD: Recognises inland water ecosystems (COP 7 Decision VII/4) Objectives –(a) Adopt integrated land and catchment/watershed/river basin management approaches that incorporate the ecosystem approach, and the conservation and sustainable use of inland water ecosystems, including transboundary catchments, watersheds and river basins. –(b) Encourage the adoption of such integrated watershed, catchment and river basin management strategies to maintain, restore or improve the quality and supply of inland water resources and the economic, social, cultural, spiritual, hydrological, biological diversity and other functions and values of inland water ecosystems. –(c) Integrate into land-and water-use management approaches appropriate adaptive management and mitigation responses to combat, and prevent where possible, the negative impacts of climate change, El Niño, unsustainable land use and desertification on the biodiversity of inland water ecosystems. Marine Ecosystem- Desalination – brine can affect marine ecosystem (supra) [Singapore has not ratified the RAMSAR Convention, Bonn Convention – these MEAs recognize the water ecosystems. They escalate response.... across sectors such a human health, water supply and drainage,..]

39. 39 (b). ASEAN Context 1. ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resources Management, 2005 Vision: “ attainment of sustainability of water to ensure sufficient water quality of acceptable quality to meets the needs of the people…in terms of health, food security, economy and environment.”

40. 40 Vision: 4 major aspects of water management: - Access to safe water - Provision of sufficient water that will ensure food security for the region - Provision of sufficient water to spur and sustain the economies of the region -Protecti0n of the ewater environment to preserve flow regimes, biodiversity and cultural heritage as well as the mitigation of water –related hazards. Mission: To enhance understanding of the importance of water to the economy and livelihoods at all levels of society through implementatin of world’s best integrated water resources management and capacity building.

41. 41 Objective is to inform ASEAN on the current state of knowledge regarding water resources data and information, data gaps and needs, and major issues that are arising in terms of water resources management in Member Countries and across ASEAN Project Contribution to Regional Integration Process The aim of the project was to develop a coherent set of targets and actions to improve water resources planning and management across all ASEAN Member Countries. Ten project concepts were developed and submitted to AWGWRM, namely: ASEAN Integrated Water Resource Management Country Strategy

42. 42 The Plan reflects the commitments not only of Agenda 21 but also the Millennium Declaration and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of WSSD in provision of clean drinking water and adequate sanitation by 2015 ]. Singapore has already achieved these; for sanitation – last night soil buckets phased out in Jan 87’); the Singapore experience also adopts the policies and principles in the World Water Forum, etc Vision and Mission

43. 43 Project Concept 3: River Classification Systems Singapore participated in this project ( July 2007): - ASEAN Water Data Management and Reporting System Design; - Risks and Impacts from Extreme Events in ASEAN countries; - Knowledge Sharing and Exchange; - Exchanging Information and Creating Awareness in a Structured Basis between Peak Bodies; - Integrated Land Use Planning; - Increasing Long Term Awareness, Knowledge and Community Participation in Integrated Water Resource Management; - Education on Sanitation and Pollution Management. - Development of a list of potential sources of funding at international and ASEAN - Member Country level to implement the Strategic Plan of Action. This included potential collaborative mechanisms for countries to work together to implement the plan.

44. 44 2. ASEAN Marine Water Quality Management Guidelines and Monitoring Manual To develop a harmonized framework Guiding Principles –include:  To achieve sustainable development of ASEAN Marine and Estuarine ecosystems.  To employ integrated (coordinated and cooperative) approach to water quality management.  To involve community development (local, indigenous groups and private sector) in resource management.  To utilize collaborative and complementary approaches for monitoring marine water quality and in responses to marine water quality events….

45. 45 3. Hanoi Plan of Action · 6.9 “Implement an ASEAN regional water conservation programme by the year2001”; · 6.13 “Implement the Framework to Achieve Long-Term Environmental Goals for Ambient Air and River Water Qualities for ASEAN Countries”. 4. Vientiane Action Programme Programme Area: 3.3 Promoting Environmental Sustainability. Measure: 3.3.9.4 “Promote awareness to enhance integrated water resources Management”. Outputs Development of national assessment guidelines and questionnaires. Preparation of a Report on the State of Water Resources Management in ASEAN. Preparation of an ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resources Management,including regional project proposals to implement the strategic plan of action.

46. 46 (c). Singapore: Water Policy & Legal Frameworks Water as a national security : Why? Aim at self- sufficiency (had depended on Malaysia – vulnerable). Water imported from Johor – tensions have arisen Provision of safe and cheap water Global warming – may cause water crisis "More and more cities and countries see access to water as a security concern and a potential trigger of conflict," PM Lee Hsien Loong said – Water Summit in Singapore. (24 June 2008) http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/ idUSSIN27852320080624

47. 47 (i). Soft Laws Water Master Plan 1972 outlined local water resources – water catchment, recycled water, desalination [1963 to February 64 – drought, water rationing 6 hours a day] Singapore Water Conservation Plan, 1981: URAs efficient use of land and water bodies; contains strategies including installation of water saving devices, reuse and recycling of water, substitution of potable water with alternative sources, regular auditing of water consumption for large users and education. The Plan was formulated to check our growing water demand and ensure that water is being used efficiently. The many water conservation measures implemented under the plan are continually being reviewed and new measures are introduced. http://www.pub.gov.sg/conservation/ConservationMeasu resIntroduction.aspx http://www.pub.gov.sg/conservation/ConservationMeasu resIntroduction.aspx

48. 48 Lee Kuan Yew’s memoirs, From First World to First, The Singapore Story 1965- 2000: One compelling reason to have a clean Singapore is our need to collect as much as possible of our rainfall of 95 inches a year… Plan to dam up all our streams and rivers (Estuarine Reservoirs Scheme). The plan took about 10 years to implement...all sewage, sullage and other soiled water from homes and factories emptied into the sewers. Only clean rainwater runoff from the roots, gardens and open spaces was allowed into the open drains that flowed into dammed up rivers.[Landuse planning]

49. 49 The Singapore Green Plan (SGP 2012, 2006 edn)- developed in 2002 10-year national blueprint to build a sustainable environment. SGP states that to “ensure the sustainability of clean water supply”, is the core of water policy in Singapore. Following strategies: Chapter 2 – “Clean Water on Tap”  Enhance robustness and resilience of water supply sources  Develop effective water demand management strategies  Build up a vibrant water industry  Encourage great private sector participation

50. 50  Study and explore alternative policies, technologies and strategies to ensure long- term sustainability of Singapore’s water supply  Recommendations by MEWR and its two statutory boards, the National Environment Agency (NEA), and the Public Utilities Board (PUB). Together the three Focus Groups managed Singapore's limited resources through vibrant partnerships and cooperation across the 3P sectors - private, public, and the people - crucial in meeting Singapore's environmental sustainability challenges. http://www.mewr.gov.sg/sgp2012/about.htm Singapore Blue Plan 2009 [ as one of water taps is from water courses, and from the sea ( desalination), this Plan is important as it takes the ecosystem approach] http://www.nss.org.sg/pdf/blueplan-final.pdf

51. 51 Code of Practice on Sewerage and Sanitary Works The Code contains information on the minimum requirements in the design and construction of sewerage and sanitary works. The requirements stated are also supplementary to the Sewerage and Drainage (Sanitary Works) Regulations. Title : Code of Practice on Sewerage and Sanitary Works (1st Edition - Mar 2000 with amendments under addendum No.1- Feb 2001 and addendum No.2- Nov 2004)You may wish to : View on-line or Download the code of practice. The code of practice contains information on the basic planning, design and procedural requirements for surface water drainage, and specifies the minimum engineering requirements for the provision of functional facilities for surface water drainage. General amendments and revisions are expected from time to time.View on-line Download

52. 52 Code of Practice on Surface Water Drainage (Fifth Edition - with amendments under Addendum No. 4 - Sep 2006) Year of publication : Mar 2000> You may wish to : View on- line or Download the code of practice.Singapore Standard CP 48 : Code of Practice for Water ServicesView on- line Download The Code of Practice is published by SPRING Singapore and it contains authoritative guidance on the design, installation, fixing and testing of potable water service installations in all residential, commercial and industrial buildings or premises. Singapore Standard CP 48 : Code of Practice for Water Services The Code of Practice is published by SPRING Singapore and it contains authoritative guidance on the design, installation, fixing and testing of potable water service installations in all residential, commercial and industrial buildings or premises. http://www.pub.gov.sg/general/code/Pages/default.aspx

53. 53 (ii). Hard Laws 1. Singapore/Johor Water Agreements: Imported Water 1961 Agreement This was called the Tebrau and Scudai Rivers Water Agreement. It was signed on 1 September 1961 between the city council of the state of Singapore (the predecessor of the Public Utilities Board or PUB) and the government of the state of Johor. By then, Singapore was a self-governing state within the British empire while Malaya was already an independent nation. The 1927 agreement was declared void in this document. The agreement gave Singapore the full and exclusive right to draw off all the water within the designated land at Gunong Pulai, Sungei Tebrau and Sungei Scudai for a period of 50 years up till 2011. Singapore was to pay an annual rent of $5 per acre for the land and a charge of 3 cents for every 1,000 gallons of water. Singapore also agreed to provide Johor with a daily supply of treated water up to 12% of the raw water it drew, subject to a minimum of four million gallons (18,184m3), and at a price of 50 cents per 1,000 gallons.

54. 54 1962 Agreement Called the Johor River Water Agreement, this was signed on 29 September 1962 between the Singapore city council and the Johor state government. Valid for 99 years up till 2061, it gave Singapore the full and exclusive right to draw water from Johor River up to a maximum of 250 million gallons per day (mgd) (1.14 million cubic metres a day). In return, Johor was entitled to a daily supply of treated water from Singapore up to 2% of the raw water it supplied. Singapore had to pay rent for the land it used "at the standard rate applicable to building lots on town land". The water prices remained the same as in the previous agreement - 3 cents per 1,000 gallons of raw water supplied to Singapore and 50 cents per 1,000 gallons of treated water sold to Johor. After Singapore and Malaysia stopped using a common currency, the prices became denominated in Malaysian ringgit. The 1961 and 1962 agreements provided for a price review after 25 years, with arbitration being the agreed course of action if bilateral price negotiations failed. However, the Johor government chose not to revise the prices at both opportunities, in 1986 and 1987. The Independence of Singapore Agreement (also known as the Separation Agreement) signed between the governments of Singapore and Malaysia on 9 August 1965 guaranteed the 1961 and 1962 water agreements.

55. 55 1990 Agreement This was signed on 24 November 1990 between PUB and the Johor state government. It was supplementary to the 1962 pact and would also expire in 2061. A separate document was signed on the same day by the governments of Malaysia and Singapore to guarantee adherence to the agreement. Under this agreement, Singapore was allowed to construct a dam across Sungei Linggui to facilitate the extraction of water from Johor River, with Johor setting aside about 21,600ha (216km2) of land for the project. Singapore agreed to pay RM320 million as compensation for the permanent loss of use of the land and its associated revenue, in addition to a premium of RM18,000 per hectare (per 10,000m2) and an annual rent of RM30 for every 1,000ft2 (per 92.9m2) of the land. The cost of building and maintaining the dam would be borne by Singapore.

56. 56 In return, Singapore could buy (from Johor) treated water generated by the new dam. This would be over and above the 250mgd of raw water that it was allowed to draw from Johor River under the 1962 agreement. The price of this additional supply would be calculated based on a fixed formula: the weighted average of Johor's water tariffs plus 50% of the surplus from the sale of this water by PUB to its consumers after deducting Johor's price and PUB's cost of distribution, or 115% of the weighted average of Johor's water tariffs, whichever was higher. This agreement was a follow-up to the memorandum of understanding (MOU) signed on 28 June 1988 between the two countries' prime ministers at the time, Lee Kuan Yew for Singapore and Mahathir Mohamad for Malaysia. The signing of the MOU was hailed as a breakthrough in Singapore-Malaysia water relations, the culmination of six years of difficult negotiations.

57. 57 Beyond 2061 The Singapore government has stated that it will not renew the 1961 agreement which expires in 2011. Attempts to reach a new deal with Malaysia to secure water supply for Singapore beyond 2061 have not borne fruit despite years of tedious negotiations. To reduce Singapore's dependence on imported water, the government has taken steps to increase the size of the local water catchment area and to build up the supply from non-conventional sources, namely NEWater (reclaimed water) and desalinated water. With the various water projects progressing well, government officials have assured Singaporeans that the country can be self-reliant in water by 2061 if it needs to be. Source: Valerie Chew http://infopedia.nl.sg/articles/SIP_1533_2009-06-23.html

58. 58 2. Urban Redevelopment Authority Act (Cap 340)- deals with the functions, duties of URA. Land use planning, etc: URA together with other agencies such as Housing & Development Board, National Environment Agency, Jurong Town Cooperation, and Land Transport Authority deal with water management such as collection of rainwater and stormwater catchments, ponds, rivers, judicious siting of pollutive industries… other aspects of land use planning relating to water and its management.

59. 59 3. The Public Utilities Act (Cap261) Deals with functions, duties and powers of PUB, supply of piped water for human consumption, tariffs for water, etc.  Public Utilities (Water Supply) Regulations: water metering and water saving devices are mandatory –eg since 1992, low capacity flushing cisterns (LCFCs of 3.5 to 4.5 litres per flush) have been installed in all new public housing apartments. These cisterns are an improvement over the dual flush cisterns that use 4.5 or 9 litres of water per flush. With effect from Apr 1997, installation of LCFCs was made mandatory for all new premises.  Sanitary Appliances and Water Charges Regulations : water tariff system which includes a water conservation tax to encourage water conservation and applies to NEWater and Industrial water( which is non- potable and reused water); also water borne fees to off set the cost of treating used water and for maintenance and extension of the public sewerage system.  Public Utilities (Central Water Catchment Area Parks) Regulations: water is in public domain and prior approval is needed to draw water from any reservoirs and streams.

60. 60 4. Public Utilities Act: s 50 - Unauthorised connection with main, contamination, wastage, etc Unaccounted-for Water (UfW): defined as the difference between the amount of water supplied from the waterworks, as measured through its meters, and the total amount of accounted-for water. Accounted-for water includes water consumption as recorded by customers’ meters, water stored in service reservoirs, and authorized free use such as for flushing and sterilization of mains and routine cleaning of service reservoirs.  Apparent water loss - loss arising from meter inaccuracies and improper  Real water loss - water loss due to leaks and illegal draw off from the transmission and distribution system.

61. 61 Contd:  Challenge in water resource management is reduction and control of UfW - used as a measure for efficient water management.  Singapore early 1980s - UfW was about 11 % of total output. PUB intensified efforts to reduce UfW  Today, reduced to about 5.18% of the total production. http://www.google.com.sg/search?hl=en&q=Percen tage+of+unaccounted+for+water+in+Singapore&bt nG=Google+Search&meta

62. 62 contd:  Main reasons for UfW: -Poor engineering, construction, and maintenance -Poorly managed metering, billing, or collection -Poor consumer relations -Illegal connections and theft, endemic in some cities -Leakage  Measures for effective reduction and control of UfW : -Strict enforcement of cases of illegal or unauthorized draw off in Singapore under the Singapore Public Utilities Act (section 50 (2), any person who dishonestly or fraudulently abstracts, uses or consumes, or dishonestly or fraudulently diverts or causes to be diverted, any water…; without the written consent of the Board, supplies for consideration any other person with any water supplied to the first-mentioned person for any purpose by the Board; or alters or tampers with any meter supplied by the Board, shall be guilty of an offence up to S$50,000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years or to both and, in the case of a continuing offence, to a further fine not exceeding $2,500 for every day or part thereof during which the offence continues after conviction).

63. 63 contd: -Other offences include unauthorized connection with main pipe, under the management or control of PUB, and wastage of water. -Comprehensive strategy to promote efficient use of water resources -Recent years, it has added two new alternative sources of water supply (namely, NEWater and desalination to augment its traditional sources, namely, imported water and water from catchment areas. -Current construction of “Reservoir in the City” where all the four National Taps will flow into it will further reduce UfW and bring about management of the entire transmission and distribution system. Environmental Pollution Control Act (Cap 94) Control of pure water, regulations of std quality of water; deals with water pollution control (discharge of toxic substances or hazardous substances into inland waters and treatment of trade effluent, removal and cleaning up of polluting substances, sewage, etc). Heavy penalties.

64. 64 5. Sewerage and Drainage Act (Cap 294) (2001) Deals with discharge of dangerous trade effluent; sewage, protection of water causes Hazardous Waste (Control of Export and Transit) Act (Cap 122 A) Gives effect to Basel Convention Environmental Public Health Act (Cap 95) Deals with drains, sewers and wells (restriction on construction of wells, tank…likely to be used for drinking, domestic or other purposes) EPH (Toxic Industrial Waste) Regulations Lists the categories of toxic industrial waste subject to specific legislated controls,eg protection of water resources eg cannot intercept water from any place for sea (s31)

65. 65 6. Environmental Public Health (Quality of Piped Drinking Water) Regulations 2008 The regulations relating to standards for quality of piped drinking water came into operation on 1 August 2008, made pursuant to the Environmental Public Health Act. The Director General may issue or approve a code of practice on the requirements for water sampling plans and water safety plans. Earlier on in January 2008, the first edition of the Code of Practice on Piped drinking Water Sampling and Safety Plans was prepared in exercise of the powers conferred under the Regulations: http://www.nea.gov.sg http://www.nea.gov.sg Every supplier is required to prepare and implement a water safety plan and water sampling to ensure that the piped water drinking water complies with the standards specified in the regulations. Non- compliance is subject to an offence liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding $10,000 and, in the case of a continuing offence, to a further fine not exceeding $500 a day or part thereof. A supplier is also required to keep and maintain records of the water sampling plan and remedial measures and other actions, if any.

66. 66 7. Prevention of Pollution of the Sea Act (Cap 243) Gives effect to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973 as modified and added to by the Protocol of 1978, and to other international agreements relating to the prevention, reduction and control of pollution of the sea and pollution from ships; to make provisions generally for the protection of the marine environment and for the prevention, reduction and control of pollution of the sea and pollution from ships, and for matters related thereto. [Clean sea water is important for Singapore’s desalinated water ]

67. 67 B. Water Governance & Management 1. Definitions Water governance differs from the more technical and operational term ‘water management’ (subset) Water governance “is the range of political, organizational and administrative processes through which interests are articulated, input is absorbed, decisions are made and implemented, and decision makers are held accountable in the development and management of water resources and delivery of water services”.

68. 68 2. MEWR (Ministry of Environment and Water Resources) 1 July 2002 - to deliver& sustain clean and health environment and water resources; manages water as a strategic national resource, and to achieve environmental sustainability. PUB (Public Utilities Board) – to ensure an efficient, adequate and sustainable supply of water PUB is part of MEWR family. PUB reconstituted on 1 April 2001 - comprehensive water authority - integration of the Sewerage and Drainage Departments from the Ministry of the Environment (ENV). Env and Water Industry (EWI) Dev Council: raised status of water industry & its int’l role as water hub for business. Publication WaterNet targeted at “3P” ( People, Private Public sectors). NEA (National Environment Agency) – to ensure sustainable quality environment.

69. 69 PUB Organizational Chart http://www.pub.gov.sg/about/Pages/OrganisationChartImage.aspx.aspx?Print2=yes

70. 70 PUB manages, Singapore's reservoirs, waterworks, rivers, drainage system, water reclamation plants and sewerage system to optimise the use of Singapore's water resources. Vision, Mission and core values, etc were introduced to reflect the Board's new image:

71. 71 PUB Vision: Water for All: Conserve, Value, Enjoy. PUB Mission: To ensure an efficient, adequate & sustainable supply of water. Values: Value Conscious -- We value our environment, our water resources and our people; & we ensure value for money in everything we do 3P approach: ownership - we do not merely represent PUB: together WE ARE the PUB Innovation - relentlessly pursue knowledge & innovate to create value Caring - through respect and a positive work environment, we motivate our staff to develop their highest potential Excellence - we provide service to our customers with professionalism & integrity

72. 72 The Water Reclamation Department (WRD) established to take charge of treating used water including the production of industrial water and NEWater. [Formerly, ENV dealt with sewage treatment and sewerage system; PUB responsible for water resources and supply]

73. 73 3. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM): “a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximise the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.” Include principles set forth in Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.

74. 74 contd: Principles of Water Governance: - Water as economic good - Participation of all stakeholders - Social dimensions - Best technologies - Equitable allocation of resources - New paradigm - Multi-faceted, incorporates human rights, ecosystem, health, etc… ( old paradigm sectoral) - ‘Bottom up’ policy, etc

75. 75 Two approaches in water management Supply side – increase water supply Unlike some countries in the region, where the management of ownership of water infrastructure are transferred to the private sector, this is not the case in Singapore. Water is a national security Demand side – eg water conservation ….education, water scarcity

76. 76 Approach: Adaptive approach reflects environmental, technological, economic, social factors. Involves paradigm shift from top down control to a management as learning approach. The change towards adaptive management could be defined as “learning to manage by managing to learn”.

77. 77 PUB’s strategies to fulfil mission of ensuring adequate supply of water at affordable cost : Yield maximization and diversification of water resources; Reclamation and reuse of water; proper treatment and disposal of wastewater; Stormwater management; and Water demand management. These strategies are PUB’s role as regulator, supplier and manager of Spore's water and water-related services.

78. 78 Environment and Water Industry Development Council (EWI) was set up in June 2006 Under the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR). Identified by the Singapore government as a key growth area for the economy, a total of S$330m has been committed by the National Research Foundation (NRF) over five years.

79. 79 The Singapore Water Reclamation Study (NEWater Study) was initiated in 1998 as a joint initiative between the Public Utilities Board (PUB) and the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR). The primary objective of the joint initiative was to determine the suitability of using NEWater as a source of raw water to supplement Singapore's water supply. NEWater is treated used water that has undergone stringent purification and treatment process using advanced dual-membrane (microfiltration and reverse osmosis) and ultraviolet technologies. NEWater could be mixed and blended with reservoir water and then undergo conventional water treatment to produce drinking water (a procedure known as Planned Indirect Potable Use or Planned IPU).Planned IPU as a source of water supply is not new. It has been practised in several parts of the United States for more than 20 years. At Water Factory 21, Orange County Water District, Southern California, high quality water reclaimed from treated used water has been injected into ground water since 1976.

80. 80 Management of water Supply of water – 4 taps and closing of the loop (supra) Conservation of water: save water campaign – 1970s onwards … water is precious (brought down water consumption by 4.9 per cent) WCU – 1981 Pricing – water tariff and water conservation tax – metering and charging for water – water considered a social good; 1991 – WCT introduced to discourage excessively consumption of water, 5% tax levied on water used in residential premises in excess of 20 cubic metres a month (supra) Non domestic use – 10% tax 1983 water saving devices eg low capacity flushing system – 4.6 litres per flush installed in all new housing units since 1992. Now mandatory for all new and ongoing projects (half flush not more than 3 litres; full flush not more than 4.5 litres)

81. 81 Management of leaks in the water distribution system Minimizing unaccounted-for-water (Spore lowest rates in the world – 5%) ; caused by earth movement, soil subsidence, mainly from brittle asbestos cement pipes. Now changed to copper, stainless steel, and steel/ductile iron pipes were internally lined with cement mortar. Public Awareness, holistic approach – 3Ps

82. 82 Conclusion Water Awards testimony of s ound water policies; effective water governance & management –eg turning limited portable water to recycled NEWater – innovative and sustainable. I will give a few quotations which speak for themselves Prof Asit K Biswas, the 2006 Stockholm Water Price Winner, in an article stated (at 4 th World Water Forum) : …A main reason as to why Singapore has been very successful in managing its water and wastewater is because of its concurrent emphasis on supply and demand management, wastewater and stormwater management, institutional effectiveness and creating an enabling environment, which includes a strong political will, effective legal and regulatory framework and an experience and motivated workforce.

83. 83 PM of Singapore, Lee Hsien Loong, said (The Straits Times, 6 November 2006): “ … clean waterways are features that set Singapore apart from the other cities…. Efforts will include linking up Singapore waterway, turning them into recreational spots and blending them in with parks and green spaces. The aim? To turn Singapore into a ‘city of gardens and water’… There were economic opportunities in this field, as countries will need expertise on how to sustain development.”

84. 84 Minister of MEWR, Dr Yaacob Ibrahim said (The Straits Times, 24 Nov 2006): “… even water… can be sexy.” To bond Spore to water, the Minister,, introduced the ABC approach: the Active, Beautiful and Clean Waters Programme What improvements can you suggest for water supply in Singapore?

85. 85 “Singapore is No 1 in managing water resources” per Prof Asit K Biswas, President, the Third World Centre for Water Management, Mexico: The Straits Times, 26 August 2006 Christopher Gasson, Publisher of Global Intelligence, organizer of Global Water Awards: “Singapore DTSS is a visionary project whose value will be appreciated well into the bext century. Only PUB has the foresight to invest to that timescale.” Is there room for improvement – water pricing, institutional organization, impact of climate change, see challenges (supra). Thank You October 2009