1. Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies Chapter 15 Sports and Religions: Is It a Promising Combination?

2. The combination of religion and sport is especially common among Christian athletes in the United States

3. Religions: A definition... integrated and socially shared beliefs and rituals that people accept on faith and use as a source of meaning, guidance, and transcendence.  Religious beliefs and rituals link people’s lives with a supernatural realm or a divinity.  Religions and ideologies are similar, although ideologies are linked with the secular, here-and-now, material world.

4. Depending on conditions, religion and religious beliefs can lead to Powerful forms of group unity A spirit of love and acceptance Commitment to prevailing norms Acceptance of systems of power Devastating group conflict Moral judgments and condemnation Rejection of prevailing norms Rejection of systems of power or

5. Religious beliefs and rituals... are always connected to a sacred and supernatural realm.  This connection is based on faith, which is the foundation of all religions.  When a religion is challenged, so is the faith of believers.

6. The sacred versus the secular The Secular Objects/activities connected with the material world Stadiums Locker room Warm-up drills Half-time talk The Sacred Objects/activities connected with the supernatural Churches Sacristy Prayers Sermons

7. Muslim and Hindu believers don’t distinguish between the sacred and secular as do most Christians. (Source: © AMR ABDALLAH DALSH/ Reuters/Corbis)

8. Are sports a form of religion? (I) Both sport and religion  Have places for communal gatherings  Emerge out of a disciplined quest for perfection  Are controlled through structured organizations and hierarchical authority  Have events that celebrate widely shared values  Have rituals before, during, and after major events (continued)

9. Are sports a form of religion? (II) Both sport and religion  Have heroes and legends about heroic accomplishments  Evoke intense emotions and give meaning to people’s lives  Can be used to distract attention from important social, political, and economic issues, thereby becoming like opiates

10. “Essentialists” focus on differences between sport and religion SPORT  Tied to secular  Goal = here-and-now victories  Rooted in fact  Involves competition  Rituals/events = instrumental and goal oriented  Based on a spirit of achievement and conquest RELIGION Z Tied to sacred Z Goal = transcendence Z Rooted in faith Z Involves cooperation Z Rituals/services = expressive and process oriented Z Based on a spirit of humility and love

11. People adapt images of their gods to fit their values; these statues “muscularize” Christ for young Christian athletes. Photos by Jay Coakley

12. Is there a difference between the ways that Christians and agnostics play sports? If not, why not? Photos by Jay Coakley

13. Religions and sports as cultural practices A social constructionist approach  Based on combinations of cultural, interactionist, and structural theories  Assumes that the meanings and practices connected with both sports and religions vary by time and place  Assumes that variations and changes in sports and religions usually reproduce dominant values, but also may oppose them

14. Sociologists study religions because Religions provide people with a set of meanings that influences Ideology (how people “interpret” the world) Actions and relationships Ideas about the body, movement, physical activities, and even sports

15. Studying sports and religions Using critical questions as a guide  What are the meanings that sports and religions have for people?  Do different religious belief systems have unique relationships with sports and sport participation?  How does religion influence ideas about the body?  Are some religious beliefs more easily combined with sports?

16. Protestant Christian beliefs have supported the ideas that  The body is a tool to be used to establish mastery over the world  Competitive success is a legitimate means for demonstrating individual moral worth  Sport participation can be used as a form of religious witness

17. Why certain forms of Christianity have become connected with sports Elements of the Protestant ethic are compatible with the spirit or ethos of sports Worldly asceticism Rationalization Goal directedness Individualism Achieved status Work ethic Time ethic

18. Sports and world religions  Research is scarce  Doing studies is difficult because some religions don’t make sacred versus secular distinctions  Research is needed to understand links between various religious beliefs and Ideas about the body Participation in physical activities and sports

19. World religions and sports (I)  Buddhists and Hindus use physical and spiritual discipline to transcend the self.  Muslims focus on submitting to Allah’s will. n Many Muslims have a gender ideology that strongly influences the conditions under which believers play sports. n Some female Muslim women athletes challenge traditional Islamic beliefs about the body. (continued)

20. Meanings given to sports vary from one religion to another. Sociologists deal with meanings rather than rating religions on “who has the ultimate truth”

21. Muslim women and international sports  As in all religions, Muslim beliefs may be interpreted and applied in different ways.  Fundamentalist Muslims are likely to Enforce strict dress codes for women athletes Require male permission for females to play sports  “Liberal/secular” Muslim girls and women have participated in sports without special dress or male permission.

22. Religious doctrine often is interpreted in different ways by believers. In Brighton, England, two Muslim sisters play basketball in public with their father and brother. Other Muslims might see this as objectionable. Photo by Jay Coakley

23. World religions and sports (II)  Judaism has been linked with sports when Jews used sports to disrupt ethnic and religious stereotypes.  Shinto consists of rituals and ceremonies that influence the rules and traditions of Sumo wrestling.  Animistic religious beliefs of Native Americans merge the spiritual and physical worlds.

24. Sumo is steeped in Shinto ritual and ceremony, but wrestlers, fans, and sponsors do not use Sumo to claim or promote Shinto beliefs. ( Source: © Mike Valdez/ZUMA/Corbis )

25. Religion is important in most societies, but few people assume a direct link between religious beliefs and sports, as many Christians do. This player in Sendai, Japan would not think of combining Buddhism and baseball. Photo by Jay Coakley

26. Christians and Christian organizations use sports 1. To promote spiritual growth 2. To recruit new members 3. To promote fundamentalist beliefs and evangelical orientations

27. Sports in the United States may be sponsored by religious organizations and churches. This seldom occurs outside the U.S. ( Source: Kristie Ebert)

28. When sports become a central cultural activity, churches may alter services to attract fans—as this one does due to its location next to a stadium. Photo by Jay Coakley

29. Universities affiliated with religions have often linked beliefs and sports to attract students and fans. Photo by Jay Coakley

30. Athletes, coaches, and teams have used religion to... (I) 1. Cope with uncertainty 2. Stay out of trouble 3. Give meaning to sport participation 4. Put sport participation into a balanced perspective 5. Establish team solidarity and unity (continued)

31. Christian athletes often give visible thanks when they succeed, but seldom do so when they fail. Photo by Jay Coakley

32. Athletes, coaches, and teams have used religion to... (II) 6. Reaffirm expectations, rules, and social control on teams 7. Assert autonomy in the face of power 8. Achieve personal and competitive success 9. Market games and sell tickets

33. Christian athletes often disagree about the appropriateness of using prayer to achieve success in sports. Photo by Jay Coakley

34. Public prayers at sport events in the U.S.  Public prayers are allowed at all private events in the U.S.  All people in the US may pray privately at any time; no law can prevent this.  On June 19, 2000 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that public prayers at games involving teams from public schools violated First Amendment guarantees of religious freedom and church-state separation. Some public schools ignore this ruling and continue to say Christian prayers publicly

35. When coaches organize or promote team prayer, many athletes feel social pressure to pray, regardless of beliefs. This can undermine team unity when there is religious diversity among players.

36. Challenges faced when combining sports and religious beliefs For Athletes Determining the worth of sport participation as an act of worship when:  Violence and intimidation are part of the game  The aggressive pursuit of personal success is expected  There is an emphasis on self-promotion

37. Christian religious beliefs and power and performance sports: a proposed model of conflict, doubt, and resolution

38. Should actions that could kill or seriously injure others be considered as “acts of worship”?

39. Strategies for resolving doubts Christian athletes use 3 strategies: 1. Focus on ascetic aspects of sports—the discipline, self-denial, and sacrifice 2. Play sports as before, but Ignore moral questions Use sports to give witness and evangelize Focus on good works and service off the field 3. Give priority to religious beliefs by Changing behavior Playing pleasure and participation sports Withdrawing from sports

40. People in all cultural groups construct images of deities that reflect their values and experiences. This shirt would appeal to some Christian men who spend time in gyms. Photo by Jay Coakley

41. When Christianity is combined with power and performance sports  Sports change very little, if at all  Religion becomes “muscularized” It emphasizes discipline, duty, and self- righteousness rather than stewardship, social responsibility, and humility  Winning, obedience to coaches, and improving skills become moral virtues so that the sport ethic is sanctified