2. Definitions of religion 1) Substantive: Focus of the content or substance of religious belief as a belief in God or the supernatural. Weber defines religion as a belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically.

3. Marxism Althusser - Religion is an ideological state apparatus Marx - described religion as ‘opium of the masses’ religion is a drug that distorts reality and helps individuals deal with pain. Promises eternal life in heaven for those who accept the beliefs makes virtue out of suffering & oppression - injustice during life will be rectified in the afterlife therefore no need to try and overcome injustice now false class consciousness masking the true extent of their exploitation invisible Alienation - the true nature of work in a capitalist society cuts the worker off from themselves, from others, from their work and what they produce. Engles - religion is the fatalistic reflection in minds of those external forces which control their daily lives In soviet union (communist leadership) 1917- 1990 destroyed many Russian orthodox churches as well as mosques and oppossed the extenace of beliefs.

4. Evaluation of Marxism

5. Neo-Marxism Gramsci - Rejects the view that cultural superstructure reflected society economic base. Hegemony exercised political & economic control - saw religion could develop challenges to ruling class. argued in history religion helped develop w/c to challenge the dominant ruling class ideology Manduro - Religion has relative autonomy from ruling class control, and the economic system. He denies that religion is always a conservative force & it can be used as a way of revolution Liberation theology - religious justification for the liberation of oppressed people e.g. Latin america and catholic churches

6. Feminism Armstrong - Argues religion has not always been patriarchal - women have been linked to spirituality & mother goddess. In 1750bc the importance of goddess declined as male Gods replaced femaes. Also an increase in monotheistic religions portrayed God as male. Holm (1994) - The public sphere of religion (Where religion are made/ leaders) are male dominated, private sphere (socialization of children into religion) are women dominated De Beauvioir - Men usually control religious organizations and claim their authority comes from God, some portray women closer to God if passive and don’t question male authority. Religion then gives women a false belief that their suffering will be rewarded in heaven. Religion therefore gives a form of false consciousness, which keeps them in their place El Saadawi - Women are sometimes seriously oppressed in some islamic states e.g. female circumcision argues such practises are not the result of islam but a male misinterperation of the Qu’aran that distorts the true beliefs to justify the exploitation of women, Daley - religion infused with patriarchal ideology, specfic rules for female to follow.e.g catholic when expected to cover head but not men in church watson believes that some religions can misinterpreted as patriarchal e.g. veiling in islam is not a sign of oppression but a way of protecting women against sexual harassment.

7. Weber Religion functions to justify social inequality. He saw religion as didn’t inevitably function in a conservative manner, Religion existed because people need a system of beliefs to make sense of existence and identity - to give people meaning. Calvinism and the spirit of capitalism –Capitalism develop in western countries but not easten because, eastern religions (Buddhism, Hinduism) embodied key teaching/values which discourage the development of capitalism, while Christianity support it. Although the pursuit of gain could be found in all societies, he saw that only in the west did developed and accepted rational capitalism (through legal means) Calvinism- Key teachings: Pre-destination (doctrine; before birth God has selected some for salvation and others for damnation), caused an attitude of helpless fatalism/resignation. Weber sees while none could be sure of their salvation, all were required to pursue an active work life of labour. Thus to deal with the chronic anxiety of damnation, Calvinists threw themselves energetically into economic activity. The book looked at the reasons the development of capitalism in Europe and USA. He argued that at the time many countries such as india and china which had the necessary economic conditions (skills, tech, finance) but not the beliefs for capitalism. Weber argues that the development of capitalism resulted from the right economic condition and a specific set of religion beliefs – he linked the growth of capitalism with the rise of a type of Protestantism, Calvinism. Weber argued that the spirit of Calvinism involves determination to make money, not spend it but instead reinvest it into businesses so that they become more profitable. Although not the intention of Calvin, Calvinism spent little of their money on themselves. Many early Calvinism led to the spirit of capitalism, however capitalism eventually led to undermining religious beliefs as it involves the rational calculation of profit and less and leaves little room for faith and devotion. Calvinism eventually led to its own downfall

8. Evaluation of weber Issue in Weber’s theoryArgument against WeberCounter argument The nature of Calvinist beliefs Sombart(1907) argued that Calvinism attacked green and making money Weber argued it was not the beliefs but the indirect effects of the belief in predestination that led to the Protestant work ethic. The reason Calvinists were linked to capitalist businesses Calvinism were linked to capitalism not because Calvinists believed in predestination, but because like non- conformist religions they were banned from many professions Supports of Weber argue that followers of other non-conformist religions also became successful capitalists, so it was their beliefs that made the difference Which came first, capitalism or Protestantism? The Marxist Kautsky claimed that capitalism predated and therefore cause Protestantism Weber argued that reinvestment and the pursuit of profit, the key features o capitalism only came after Protestantism Where capitalism startedScotland, Switz and Hungary were strongly Calvinist but were not amongst the first areas to become capitalist Marshall (1982) argues that these countries lacked the economic conditions necessary for capitalism to develop.

9. Religion and social change The view that religion primarily acts to prevent change is supported by: Functionalists – who argue that religion benefits society by promoting stability and integration Marxists – who argue that it benefits the ruling class by helping to promote false class consciousness and thereby retaining ruling class power Most feminists- who argue that it helps to retain patriarchal power. Religion can be seen as a conservative force. Example - Catholic Church have supported traditional sexual morality that opposed abortion and sex outside marriage. (By supporting tradition, they oppose change) Religion as a radical force: Neo Marxists – points out how Roman Catholic liberation theology in Latin America shows tha religion can sometimes be a force for radical change. Max Weber – argued that religion could be used to support any set of beliefs, such as those which could lead to changes in society. Religion as shaped by changes in society This view argues that changes in society largely shape changes in religion. This is supported by: Functionalists – who believe that as a society evolves it will lead to a change in the role of religion. Comte believes that religion would decline as a results of the increasing importance of positivist science. Parsons believes that religion would lose some its functions as society developed. It would carry on providing basic value but it would lose other functions such as running the education system or basis for legal laws. Marxists – who believes that changes in religion are shaped by changes in the economic system or (mode of production) For example, Kautsky thought that the change from Catholicism to Protestantism in some countries was the result of the change from feudalism to capitalism. Protestantism was more suited to capitalist societies because of its emphasis on individual relationships with God, whereas Catholicism was more concerned with accepting traditional authority. Postmodernists believe that the advent of postmodernity has led to significant changes in religion. They see it as leading to the decline of traditional church based religions in which believers follow rules laid down by their religion and the growth of new age beliefs where people can pick and choose their own beliefs belief systems. The theory of secularization argues that religion has progressively declined in western societies and has been replaced by scientific rationalism where there is little room for faith

10. Religion and conflict Examples of religion causing social change: 1. Martin Luther King and the southern Christian Leadership Council supported the civil rights movement and this resulted in the legislation to reduce racial discrimination 2. Roman Catholic liberation theology movement in 1979 Factors affecting whether or not religion becomes a radical force: The question has moved on to in what circumstances religion tends to be conservative, and what sometimes leads to religion being a radical force for change. Mcguire (1981) argues that whether religion becomes a force for radical change or not is affected by a range of factors. Religion with strong moral codes are more likely to have followers who are critical of society and therefore may take action to change it. Societies in which religious beliefs are central to the culture (for example in Latin America) provide more opportunity for people to use religion to mobilise a movement for change. Where religious organisations play a central role in the economic and political structure of society, they have more chance of producing change. Religion, conflict and theories. Whether religion can be a force change or not is closely related to whether it causes conflict as, when it does, this can lead to change. Functionalism claims that religion tends to prevent conflicts by creating harmony through shared values Marxism and feminism both claim that religion can prevent conflicts by reinforcing the control of dominant groups in society, the ruling class in the case of Marxism ad men in the case of feminism. Weber recognizes that religion can be a cause of conflict as well as harmony.

11. Religion causing conflict Examples of religion causing conflict Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland. Muslims and Hindus in Indian. Samuel Huntington: the clash of civilisations. Argued that people see themselves as belonging to civilisations that important in modern world. These civilisations are: Western, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu and African. < All caused conflict when in contact Huntington is a controversial social scientist and his ideas have been heavily criticized. These are many examples of supposedly conflicting civilisations living in harmony. Furthermore there is plenty of conflict within civilisations, such as types of Christianity (Protestants and Catholics) Conflict as caused by non-religious factors. It can often be argued that conflict apparently based on religion are really about other issues. For examples, in Northern Ireland the conflict was more about whether the UK or Southern Ireland controlled the North, while in the Middle East the Palestinian-Isareli conflict is about control over land. Karen Armstrong (2011) argues that the conflict between Islam and the West is not primarily caused by religion but by American foreign policy. The USA haws frequently intervened in Muslim countries and often supported regimes that have not brought prosperity to ordinary Muslims. Steve Bruce (2000) claims that religious factors are often intermingled with non-religious factors in causing conflict. He cites the Palestinian-Israeli conflict where nationality and ethnicity are intermingled with religious differences

12. Fundamentalism Almond et al (2003) as a ‘pattern of religious militancy by which self-styled true believers attempt to arrest the erosion of religious identity … and create viable alternative to secular institutions and behaviour.’ Fundamentalism religions believe that a set of religious beliefs has been watered dwn or is under threat. They are opposed to the decline of those beliefs and wish to return to the originals, basic or ‘fundamental’ beliefs of their religion. They often return to the beliefs of an original text on which their religion is based, claiming that other followers have strayed away from the original teachings. Fundamentalism, conflict and social change. Fundamentalism causes conflict with other groups who they see as a threat to their religion. Also to cause conflict with other followers of their religion without the same interpretation. Fundamentalism can be seen as a response to changes, since they want to reverse changes that have already taken place. It therefore tends to be a conservative force in terms of preserving traditional values but a radical force in terms of social change. Examples: The new Christian right – a protestant group in the USA following literal interpretation of the bible. Al Qaeda, a Muslim group, they are responsible for the terrorist attacks on the USA. Hama, a group of Palestinian fundamentalists. They have fought wars with Israel and sponsored terrorist tactics. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) a Hindu fundamentalist group in India, who believe India should be Hindu rather than secular lines.

13. Fundamentalism Cosmopolitanism -Defend traditional beliefs in the literal truth of scriptures and faith-based answers -Traditional and dogmatism: traditional authority goes largely unquestioned and compulsory; submission to authority -Avoid contact with those with different views -Justify beliefs with dogma; reliance on guardians of traditions -Resistance to change: want a return of the basics of their faith -Tolerant of other views an open to new ideas and values -Reflexivity: making conscious decisions monitoring life to better it; pursuit of personal meaning -Make contact with those who are different to them -Justify their beliefs referring to rational arguments and evidence; reliance on experts -Modify their thinking in light of new information -Responses to Postmodernity: Bauman- fundamentalism as a response in living in postmodernity. Freedom, choice and risk, it undermines old certainties. Castells responses to postmodernity: resistant identity- defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat to fundamentalist groups. Project identity- those who are forward-looking and engage with social movements. Responses to Postmodernity: Bauman- fundamentalism as a response in living in postmodernity. Freedom, choice and risk, it undermines old certainties. Castells responses to postmodernity: resistant identity- defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat to fundamentalist groups. Project identity- those who are forward-looking and engage with social movements.

14. Fundamentalism and secularization: Steve Bruce (2002) believes that fundamentalism is caused by secularization. He argues that the decline of religion, and modernization in which science and rationality are favoured tend to undermine traditional religion. Fundamentalism is most likely to occur when: Religion has a single scared text in which followers can argue. A religion lacks centralized authoritarian control, which means it’s easier for alternative interpretations to develop. Followers have a common enemy – Muslims and the USA There is a ready supply of recruits – Hamas can draw on impoverished and unemployed men. There is little opportunity to express grievances through legitimate politics, in which it becomes more radical. Karen Armstrong: Islam and the West (2001) Argued that there is nothing in the Islamic religion, which tends to lead towards fundamentalist beliefs. For more than a century, most Islamic leaders were in favour of Westernisation and modernization. However the attempts to impose modernization too rapidly on Islamic countries without concern for the welfare of the poor has built up resentments within many Islamic populations in the world. This has led to the growth of Islamic fundamentalism.

15. Secularisation Secularisation: Process of becoming less religious. Secularisation thesis: claim that social change (industrialisation/scientific knowledge) would lead to the weakening/disappearance of religion. -Comte 3 stages of human history, each characterised by intellectual beliefs: 1) Theological- religious beliefs were dominant in society 2) Metaphysical- emphasis on the importance of philosophy 3) Positive- characterised by the dominance of science and rational thought resulting in the eventual disappearance of religion. -Woodhead and Heelas: - Disappearance thesis: Claim that religion will decline on a societal and individual level. - Differentiation thesis: Claim that religion will decline in social significance. -Statistics: Crockett- 1851 census: 40% of the adult population attended church on Sunday. 1960’s-12.6% level of church attendance in England and Wales, 2005- 6.3% on Sundays, 2015- church attendance is expected to drop by 4.7%. Robin et al reviewed 100 surveys from 1939-1996; found a significant decline in God, Jesus & traditional teachings. Durkheim: Sees industrialisation and urbanisation resulting in social fragmentation -> individualism. It reflects the weakening of people’s regard/belief in society. Marx: Sees the death of religion as inevitable.Industrialisation has produced capitalism which uses religion as a previous type of society had used to legitimate social class inequality. -Weber: Society has become more rational and humans act less in terms of emotion and tradition; religion would eventually be eroded. Industrialisation produced capitalism which is based on rationality that undermines religion. -Berger: With the growth of technology, media, science, traditional religion has been questioned. He sees religion no longer has the power for providing a meaning for life. Wilson: Ecumenical movement is a clear indicator of secularisation. Religious groups only bond together when they are individually weak. The actual number of competitors in the religious market place weakens the overall spiritual meaning, as they all claim to have the ‘truth’.

16. For secularisation -Disenchantment: Process by which magical and religious ways of thought are replaced by a rational mode of thought. Events cease to be explained in supernatural terms, but by logical and scientific explanations. Weber sees rationalisation as demystifying religion. -Disengagement: The church is no longer closely related to the state. Used to have social responsibilities (education, health, guidance), but it has been taken over by the government. -Structural Differentiation: Church has reduced range of influence/power. As most responsibilities are run by the state the church is free to concentrate on religious matters. -Religious Practises: Decrease in baptisms, weddings, christenings, funerals, church membership, and Sunday schools. -Ethnic religions: In the UK there has been a steady growth in the membership of ethnic minority religion. Bruce sees religion remains a powerful social force as it provides resources for cultural defence and cultural transition. But religious enthusiasm is a blip in the overall trend to secularisation. -Changes in Society: In the last decade we are able to buy things like alcohol on Sunday- was inconceivable in the 19th century.

17. Against secularisation -Privatised religion: Followers of a religion belong to a religion but do not worship collectively or in an institutional setting (Believing without belonging- Davie). E.g. in 1991 52% claimed to believe in God. Hamilton (1998) - 10% didn’t believe in God. Also people do not have to be members of religious organisations to be religious (Bellah). Robertson Smith: Emphasised practices over beliefs – religion is a form of cultural identity. -Measuring secularisation: Statistics are unreliable are definitions vary between sociologists, problems with comparisons, places of worship may lie about figures or may only count weekly rather than daily. Data may not be representative of the population, contain practical problems, validity of the data (e.g. in 19th century they may have attended church as a sign of respectability, social desirability bias) -Sacred retains significance: Although science can explain factors such as death, religion explains the ‘ultimate meanings’ of these events. -Secularisation theorists tend to focus on mainstream religion (churches and denominations). They ignore newer religions that have been gaining for followers in recent decades. -Based on teleological assumption and the product of Marxist/rationalist ideology. -Ethnocentric view of religious developments, dismissing the persistence of religion in less economically developed countries as a result of their lack of modernity.

18. Secularisation - Bruce – Cultural identity: sees religion as a form of cultural defence and cultural transition which are reasons why religion is still thriving in a pluralistic structure. Cultural Defence: When an ethnic group uses religion as a sense of identity and uses it to maintain ethnic pride through religion. Cultural Transition: When religion is used to cope with the upheaval of migration. Privatised Sphere: Religion is now performing functions for individuals e.g. psychological and helping answering the unknown by giving life meaning/ helps with social integration, -Kendal Project: Woodhead and Heelas has religion declined and how far has the growth of spirituality compensated this Distinguished two groups: Congregational domain- traditional/evangelical Christianity. Holistic milieu- spirituality and the New Age. 2000-> found 7.9% of the population attended church per week and 1.6% took part in activities in the holistic milieu. However, traditional churches are losing support which is the opposite for the holistic milieu. They see the spiritual revolution has not taken place in Kendal but if the present trends continue the revolution will take place in 20-30 years.

19. Secularisation in the USA Wilson- becoming secular via declining church attendance, religious diversity, and relativism. However, Roof and McKinney- Estimates conservative Protestant groups were 15.8% of the US population in 1984, now it is 25%. Could be due to politicians being conservative Christians (George Bush) giving power to oppose non-Christian values e.g. abortion/homosexuality. Declining church attendance: Hadaway- level of church attendance was 83% higher than their estimates in the country -> tendency to exaggerate churchgoing. Bruce- decline could be due to it not being seen as socially desirable or normative. Secularisation from within: Emphasis on traditional Christian beliefs has declined and religion has become ‘psychologised’ as a form of therapy. Religion has changed to fit into secular society; instead of seeking for salvation, individuals seek for personal improvement. This can be seen in people’s attitudes and lifestyles. Religious diversity: Churchgoers are becoming less dogmatic in their views. Bruce- sees a trend towards ‘practical relativism’ (accepting others are entitled to hold views that are different to theirs). - Lynd and Lynd- 1924: 94% of churchgoers agreed ‘Christianity is the true religion and all people should be converted to it’, 1977- only 41% agreed. However, ‘erosion of absolutism’ (people hold views that are completely different), which undermines our own views are absolutely true.

20. Post modernity Idea religion is changing rather than declining. Changes in society result of changes in wider society (greater individualism and consumerism/ even shift from modern to late modern or postmodern society. Believing without belonging: Davie- argues against secularization theory. Religion simply taking different more privatized form. E.g. people no longer go church because they ‘have’ to but because it’s respectable to. Church going attendance declined= matter of personal choice rather obligation Result = believing without belonging (beliefs but no church going) … So decline in traditional religion = matched with growth of new form or religion Vicarious religion: (Davie) Small number of professional clergy practice religion on behalf or a much larger number of people, who experience it second hand. Despite low attendance church is still used for rites of passage. (baptisms, marriage, funerals) Bibby= similar finding, 25% Canadians attended church regularly, 80% said religious beliefs, identified positively with religious traditions and turned to religion for rites of passage. Davie= beneath what appears to be only small commitment to religion is a much wide commitment. Seen when people draw to church in national tragedy e.g. Princess Diana (plus individual loss etc) May not normally attend but use church as an institution for providing ritual and support. Davie questions secularization assumption = modernism affects every society in same way causing decline in religion and replacement of science. She argues ‘multiple modernity’s’ (Britain and America= both modern societies = diff patterns of religion, seen in church attendances Criticisms: Voas and Crockett- British social attitudes surveys 1983- 2000 show both church attendance and belief = declining. Bruce: people not willing to invest time I church= reflects declining strength to beliefs. No longer believe= no longer wish to belong= so involvement with religion diminishes.

21. Postmodernity Spiritual shopping: Low church attendance= due to ‘cultural amnesia’/ loss of collective memory. Nowadays lost religion that used to be passed down from generation to generation= due to few parents teaching children about religion. Instead parents let children decide what to believe. Same time= greater social equality trend undermines traditional power of the church to impose religion on people from above. As result younger people no longer inherit fixed religious identity and ignorant of traditional religion. However declined not disappeared- instead consumerism = replaced collective tradition. Now people feel choice as consumers of religion ‘spiritual shoppers’. Develop own DIY beliefs that give meanings to our lived and fit with interests and aspirations Religion= spiritual journey choosing element wish to explore and groups to join- 2 new religious types emerging Pilgrams: individual path for self discovery (e.g. exploring new age spiritually by joining groups/ individual ‘therapy’.) demand from today’s emphasis on personal development Converts: join religious groups offering strong sense of belonging.(same ethnic background) Re-create sense of community e.g. evangelical movements. Result of trends= religion no longer source of collective identity. But does continue to have some influence on societies values (source of social solidarity etc)

22. Post modernity (consumereism) Religious consumerism Idea that we choose to construct our identities through what we choose to consume. Leger emphasizes it’s also true of religion where we act as spiritual shoppers choosing religious beliefs and practices to meet our individual needs from the vast range available in the religious marketplace. No longer need to sign up- can pix and mix elements of diff faiths to suit tastes and make part of identity. Lyons view: Lyon: ‘Jesus in Disneyland’ Trad religion giving way to variety new religious forms that demonstrate its continuous vigour. Postmodern society = number features changing nature of religion: globalization, increased importance of media and communications, growth of consumerism. religion relocated to the sphere of consumption. People may cease to belong- not abandoned religion. Instead= religious consumers making conscious choices about which elements of religion they find useful.

23. Postmodernity. Re-enchantment of the world Criticizes secularization theory- sees the last ¾ decades as a period of re- enchantment. With growth of unconventional beliefs, practices and spirituality. Although traditional forms= declined- growing vitality of non-trad religion. Criticisms: Research = people choose to view programs that confirm existing beliefs. – unlikely religious media attract many new customers. Lyons alternatives he puts forward (electronic church) not based on extensive research Bruce argues the consumerist religion (Lyon) is weak religion- little effect on the lived of it adherents.- as such sees its rise as evidence of secularization not of the continuing vitality of religion.

24. Globalisation Religion and Economic Development For secularisation theory, modernisation undermines religion. Science & technology (important in economic development) are seen as destroying belief in the supernatural. On the other hand, religion may contribute to development – Weber & the protestant ethic Sociologists interesting in the role religion may play in development in today’s globalising world.

25. Globalisation GOD AND GLOBALISATION IN INDIA Rapid economic growth because of globalisation. India has become important player in world political stage. Nandas (2008) book God and Globalisation examines role of Hinduism (85% of population) with rise of a new Hindu ‘ultra-nationalism’ & the Indian middle class. HINDUISM IN INDIA AND CONSUMERISM Scientifically educated, urban middle class in India predicted to be the first to abandon religion by secularisation theory – brought by globalisation. - Nanda found in a study (2007) that only 5% consider themselves less religious, 30% say they had become more religious. Religious tourism increased and religion in now seen to be fashionable. Nanda rejects poverty as an explanation because they are not poor. Rejects idea that their religiosity is a defensive reaction to modernisation & westernisation. Indian middle class are optimistic about opportunities that globalisation brings. Argues that increased religiosity is due to uncertainty about newfound wealth from globalisation opportunities. Tension stems between traditional Hindu belief in rejection of materialism & world desires & new wealth of middle classes. Modern versions of Hinduism legitimate position of the middle class & allow them to adjust to globalised consumer capitalism

26. Globalisation CAPITALISM IN EAST ASIA In recent decades, the so-called ‘East Asian tiger economies’ e.g. South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, have successfully industrialised and become significant players in the global economy. Even more recently, China has become a major global industrial power. The success of capitalism in East Asia has led some sociologists to argue that religion has played a role similar to the one Calvinism played in the development of capitalism in the 16th and 17th century Europe. PENTECOSTALISM IN LATIN AMERICA (SOUTH AMERICA) Peter Berger (2003) - argues Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a ‘functional equivalent’ to Weber’s Protestant ethic. It encourages the development of capitalism today (in the same way as Calvinism did in 16th and 17th century Europe). Latin.A. Pentecostalists embrace work ethic and lifestyle similar to that of the Calvinists Berger concludes that Pentecostalism has a strong affinity with modern capitalism. However, underlines Webers point that religious ideas alone are not enough to produce economic development — natural resources are also needed. E.g. while Pentecostalism has grown in northern Brazil, region lacks resources and remains backward. In contrast, southern Brazil is developing rapidly, has both a work ethic derived from Pentecostalism and resources.

27. TypeChurchesDenominationsSectsCults World? Accommodating: conservative (accept dominate values) Accommodating: accept dominate values in society Rejecting: in opposition with the world Affirming: accept the world with no opposition or links to the state Structure Large, formal, hierarchy of clergy, automatic recruitment Large, formal, hierarchy of paid officials Small organisations led by a charismatic leader. Lack of hierarchy and paid officials Loose groups with a charismatic leader. Discourage hierarchies and ideas of seniority Wider Society Accept norms and values in wider society, closely linked to major institutions Separate from the state but don’t reject it, e.g. clergy appear at national occasions Critical of wider society/mainstream bodies and expect members to stand apart from it. Contact with non-members is discouraged No common orientations with society as there are many cults. Followers are expected to live ‘in the world’ and activities are part- time Commitment Encourage members to play an active role: regularly attend services and participate in functions. Those with low levels of commitment are still seen as members Little pressure on followers to commit. Right of individuals to interpret the scriptures themselves Demand high levels of commitment. Spare time is spent in sectarian activities. If they fail this high level of devotion, they are punished or expelled Don’t demand high levels of commitment or demand acceptance of their teachings. Ask others to open their experiences in hope for followers Worship and Ritual Worship in rituals is restrained. Based on traditional ritual e.g. fixed order of service Worship is formal with less ritual/spontaneity. Sit, sit, pray but no bells or incense Little use of ritual. Worship is emotional, expressive, spontaneous ‘Customers’ have little involvement with the organisation once learn the basics Social Base Followers often have above average incomes, who feel something is lacking success. Less likely to have deprived members since cults are available Often small, exclusive dispossessed or alienated minority, drawn from groups who experience relative deprivation/marginalised/drawn from poor social groups Hardly ever a social majority. Membership is drawn from all levels of society but less closely identified wit upper classes than a church, and lower working class least likely to be represented Members are drawn from all social classes, but high status groups tend to be over- represented in membership Sense of LegitimacyChurches claim to have a monopoly of truth, they provide the only legitimate religion Do not have to have a monopoly of truth; tolerant of other beliefs and less demanding of their members Claim to have the monopoly of truth (enemies with church). Followers are encouraged to think they are elite and possess spiritual insights and salvation is only reserved for them Don’t claim to have a monopoly of truth making them tolerant and welcoming of followers involvement with others

28. Churches McGuire examines the factors that influence the role in that religion plays in society. For example, religions that emphasise adherence to strong moral codes are more likely to produce members who are critical of society and seek to change it. Bruce argues that the concept of a church is primarily useful in describing premodern Christian societies. The development of religious pluralism in modern societies makes it difficult for the state to lead exclusive support to one religion because a single set of religious beliefs is no longer taken for granted and reinforced by all groups in society. Robertson argues that there has been an increase in church state tensions throughout the world. There is little room for religious concerns in the world of international trade and diplomacy, so governments may come into conflict with the moral concerns of domestic churches.

29. Denomination Stark and Bainbridge are critical of the concept of a denomination. They claim that the division of religious organisations into separate types obscures rather than clarifies the differences between them. Becker - Denominations are just “a sect that has cooled down”, as it loses some of its initial fervour, and becomes more tolerant, world- accommodating, and ‘respectable’

30. Sects Bruce acknowledges that sects may prosper in modern societies where people have more opportunity to form subculture, even with the greater toleration that exists within contemporary societies, however, some sects may come into serious conflict with the wider society. In the 1990’s there were a number of instances involving the deaths of sect followers – for example, the deaths of more than 80 Branch Davidians in the siege at Waco in Texas. Wilson argues that Troeltsch’s description of sects does not account for the increase in new religious movements and sects ion Europe and the USA in recent decades. Some of these are examined below.

31. Sects Wilson – Sects exist in a state of tension or conflict with wider society, frequently rejecting society and its values - they impose tests of merits on would-be members, who claim elite status as having access to the route to salvation - exercise stern discipline, regulating the beliefs and lifestyles of members, using sanctions against those who deviate - demand on-going and total commitment from members,overriding all other interests - often led by a charismatic leader Weber -> sects are most likely to emerge among marginal groups in society because of the theodicy of disprivilege Social Change – Wilson – periods of sudden or rapid social change can provide fertile ground for the growth of sects - such periods create anomie- the rise of Methodism was a response to rapid social change and insecurity of life in the new industrial towns. - sects may provide solutions to such periods of uncertainty by providing new and clearly defined belief systems and close knit supportive social groups – a sense of certainty in an uncertain world. Glock and Stark – Sects emerge as a form of religious or social protest of some kind, as they embody many elements of protest against existing society - Appeal to those who find that their values are at loggerheads with those of existing society or other religious groups - the Nation of Islam group in the USA – a religious group for black people embodying protest against white society Sects like the quakers originally began as world-rejecting sects, yet have evolved for society into world accommodating and tolerant denominations

32. Why are sects short lived Barker: the heavy commitment required is hard to maintain, particularly the level demonstrated by world rejecting movements - Niebuhr: the enthusiastic fervour and and commitment of sect members is hard to sustain after the first generation: either the sect will gradually wither away, or it will need to become less of a protest movement and modify its beliefs and practices to accommodate the beliefs and practices of mainstream society. THUS, members can live more normal lives, and are more likely to stay. 2. The loss of charismatic leaders: - Sects are founded by these, and led by the magnetic and personable, inspirational leadership portrayed by them. If the leader dies, so might support 3. The changing circumstances of members and appeal of sects: - The personal reasons and social circumstances that attract people to a sect such as relative deprivation or marginalisation, may disappear after a while or cease to be relevant, particularly in generations after the first generations convert. -Barker – in NRMS, as younger people grow older, the reasons that drove them into the sect diminish, and they begin to look for more normal lives, meaning that the sect either disappears, or adapts to be more accommodating. 4. Religious diversity in postmodern society: - Postmodern societies are characterised by a fragmentation of belief and a wide diversity of religious and spiritual beliefs, as people can now go “spiritual shopping”, picking, choosing and changing beliefs easily, as beliefs are totally a personal matter - as there is a greater tolerance of all beliefs today, religious sects may have a short shelf-life as consumer taste and fads change – depending perhaps on celebrity endorsement

33. Why are sects short lived part 2 Aldridge – the suggestion that sects must over time disappear or turn into denominations is false: - many sects have existed a long time while still retaining their features as sects i.e. amish, jehovah’s witnesses - not all sects depend on a charismatic leader - many sects are successful in socialising children into the beliefs, and converting adults Wilson – what will affect whether a sect can retain it’s status or will turn into a denomination will depend on what its members see as being required in order to be ‘saved’: 1) Conversionist sects:- i.e. The Salvation Army - the most likely to develop to a denomination - think the best way to save the world is not to be hostile to and isolated from it, but be engaged with it, trying to convert individuals by spreading the message and ‘saving souls’ 2) Introversionist sects:- i.e. the amish - believe the only route to salvation involves total withdrawal from the corrupting influences of the world and becoming inward-looking - Can only succeed by keeping apart from the world – going out into mainstream society and trying to influence people may be too detrimental and polluting to an individual, compromising and destroying the fundamental beliefs of the sect - is easy to maintain in sect form 3)Adventist/revolutionary sects: i.e. Jehovah’s Witnesses - Hold millenarian beliefs that suggest there is going to be some form of divine intervention in the second coming of Christ such as armaggedon/ judgement day etc that will destroy all the evil and spare the few selected member of the sect - They may try to spread their beliefs, but there is no compromise with the world – otherwise they would be counted as sinners and cast aside. – they can stay as a sect as they cannot compromise with beliefs or they abandon their own.

34. Cults Tend to be more individualistic than other organised forms of religion because they often lack a fixed set of beliefs They tolerate other beliefs and their own beliefs are often vague They often have customers rather than members, and customers may have relatively little involvement with the organisation once they have learned the basics Many aspects of the new age movement are based around cults

35. Cults Wallis and Bruce – Cults are loosely knit groupings, open to all and highly individualistic Giddens –cults focus on the individual and individual experience and expression - there is often little discipline or commitment demanded of members - cults don’t claim a monopoly of truth - lack a clearly defined and exclusive belief system Aldridge – cults see themselves offering just one route to self-realisation or salvation out of a choice of others - followers make individual choices and drift in and out of cults depending on what works best for them at.the time - for most people, cults are more like therapies than a religious group, used as relaxation and stress busting.techniques -Cults can embrace a wide range of beliefs, some of which may not appear as religious i.e UFOs Stark and Bainbridge – Audience cults – provide little beyond information services for individual - There is little organisation or involvement of followers - consumed individually and spread by the media i.e astrology/ horoscopes Client cults – more organisation - offer services such as therapy and courses, sold to clients by practitioners - i.e spiritualism/offering contact with the dead -Cult movements – more organised and commercial - involve a wide range of activities, support, and personal involvement/ commitment- i.e scientology

36. NRMS Attendance of traditional churches has declined in Britain, yet attendance of NRM’s has dramatically risen. Social Trends survey suggests that in 1995 there were 14,350 members of NRM’s and by 2000 this increased to around 21,336. It is hard to measure membership of NRM’s as: Many people are not registered Many people don’t want to admit they are in a NRM Some NRM’s are short lived and so people may have once been involved in a dissolved group

37. Wallis suggests there are 3 types of NRMS: 1.World Rejecting movements: Similar to a sect Move away from the world rejecting it, segregate themselves from wider society. E.g. Heaven’s Gate. Highly critical of the outside worlds and want to change it Expect massive commitment from members and often live in isolated communities Members of Hare Krishna must shave their heads, wear massive robes and chant a mantra 16 times day There are often massive moral objections to such groups due to mass suicide groups. In 1997 39 members of the Heavens gate group committed suicide. Millenarian groups expect divine intervention to change the world E.g. the Nation of Islam in 2000 expected Allah would destroy all white people and their religions. World Affirming movements: believe that life is good, Similar to cults Individualistic- based on inner happiness Accept the world as it is but give members strategies to enhance their happiness Does not restrict members, no collective worship/church/rituals Often sell a service- e.g. Scientology gains £200 million per year through courses and the sale of books. Entry is through training An example of a WAM is transcendental meditation- based on finding oneself through positive thinking World Accommodating movement: accept the world. E.g. Pentecostalism Worried by the state of religion and would seek a ‘purer’ form of religious practise They are concerned for the state of society but do not actively seek to change it Maintain connections with mainstream religions E.g. Pentacostalists- believe the holy spirit allows them to speak in tongues Members carry on with normal life outside of religion

38. Lifespan of NRMS Niebuhr suggests Sects cannot live beyond a generation This is because they are based around voluntary adult commitment, the members children therefore do not have the same commitment levels and leave when they become adults Also they are usually based around single charismatic leaders and when they move or leave, the sect dies with them Some WRM’s may commit suicide- Heavens Gate- the whole movement ended when the act occurred

39. Why do people join NRM Practically: People are promised happiness or financial success Marginally: Weber- people join NRM’s because they feel they cannot get rewards from mainstream society Sects/WRMs offer their members a ‘theodicy of disprivilege’. A justification of their marginality as a spiritual test or trial E.g. the black Muslims in the USA, aimed to recruit the ‘Negroe in the mud’ Many hippies in the 60’s were attracted to NRM’s as they wanted spiritual and personal enlightenment. Relative deprivation Wallis suggests that m/c people are more attracted to NRM’s They reject materialism and feel spiritually deprived They cant afford to be interested in their own spiritual development Social change: People feel uncertain at times of upheaval so look to NRM’s to give answers E.g. in the 1960’s there was a massive growth in Higher Education This lead to a massive transition between childhood and adulthood where people had freedom without responsibility There was also a rise in radical political movements- it was acceptable to seek alternatives to dominant norms. People sought an idealistic way of life

40. New age movements. -A wide diversity of mind-body-spirit ideas, interests and therapies from across the globe -Draw on and combine religious and occult traditions from the conventional to the obscure -Spread through the mass media and specialised shops Heelas – New age consists of a range of beliefs in self-spirituality in which everyone becomes their own spiritual specialist, dipping into whatever beliefs and practices they fancy Bruce –New Age religion has 5 main features: 1. The emphasis on the self – and freeing the ‘self within’, seen as good and divine 2. Everything is connected – a holistic approach - mind, body and spirit, along with a connection to the environment and the supernatural 3. The self is the final authority – no authority higher than the individual, and no single truth – the truth is what the individual believes and what works for them – personal experience is the only test that matters 4. The global cafeteria – a vast range of beliefs, therapies and techniques drawn from across the globe – people can mix it as they choose 5. Therapy – New Age ideas are therapeutic – they make you more successful, healthier and happier 1.Drane argues that the appeal of the New Age comes from the failure of the modern world to deliver personal satisfaction 2.Believes that people in the western societies no longer trust institutions such as the medical professions and are disillusioned with the inability of churches to satisfy their craving for spirituality.

41. Religion and Gender trends Priesthoods of most religions are male More women than men participate in religious activities and believe in God, sin, evil, the Devil and the afterlife. 2005 = 1.8 million women churchgoers 1.36 million men churchgoers Miller and Hoffman (1995) - Women express greater interest in religion, have a stronger commitment & attend church more. Bruce (1996) – estimates that there are twice as many women than men involved in sects. Heelas and Woodhead (2005) – found that 80% of participants in holistic milieu in Kendal were female. Recent Trends Brierley (2005) – drastic decline in 30-45 women churchgoers. 16.4% fall in Sunday church attendance between 1990 – 2005. Suggests that may be due to pressures – home, family, work. Likely to have younger family and 1 in 3 work on Sundays. Callum Brown (2001) – Since 1960s, women rejecting traditional subordinate gender roles. Roles common in religion therefore rejecting traditional religion at the same time.

42. Religion and gender Socialisation and Gender Role Women are socialised to be passive, obedient and caring. (Miller and Hoffman) These qualities are valued by religions therefore women more attracted. Men with these qualities are also more likely to be attracted to religion. Women more likely to work part-time & have more time for religion. Church could be a source for gender identity. Caring for family increases for religiosity. Women and the New Age.Heelas and Woodhead (2005) May be because NAMs celebrate the ‘natural’ and healing – gives a woman higher status and sense of self-worth. Bruce: Less aggressive and goal- orientated, more cooperative & caring. Fits with expressive emphasis of the New Age Brown (2001) - argues that New Age ‘self’ religions – that emphasise individual experience rather than external authority – appeals to women’s wish for independence and attract women recruits. Others may be attracted to fundamentalism because of certainties of a traditional gender role Compensation for Deprivation Glock & Stark (1969) & Stark & Bainbridge (1985) – people may participate in religion because of compensators (social, organismic & ethical deprivation). Glock & Stark – forms of deprivation all more common among women. Explains their higher level of sect membership. Organismic Deprivation – Women more likely to suffer physical & mental health problems thus seek healing through religion. Ethical Deprivation – Women tend to be more morally conservative thus more likely to regard world as being in moral decline & be attracted to sects (which often share this view. Social Deprivation – Women more likely to be poor

43. Ethnicity and religion UK is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious society. 72% of pop are Christians Muslims, Hindus & black Christians more likely than white Christians to see religion as important However, Modood et al (1994) – found some decline in important of religion in all ethnic groups. Most ethnic minorities originate from poorer countries with traditional cultures (higher levels of religious belief and practice). Come to UK, maintain pattern. However, this disregards the impact of experiences as immigrants in a new society & how this might give religion a new role as cultural defence and cultural transition.

44. Ethnicity and religion Cultural Defence Bruce (2002) – argues that religion offers support and sense of cultural identity in uncertain or hostile environments. Bird (1999) notes – religion can be a basis for community solidarity, preserving culture & language & way of coping with oppression in a racist society. E.g. Black African & Caribbean Christians found white churches in UK unwelcoming therefore they turned to black-led churches (especially Pentecostal churches) Cultural Transition Means of easing transition into a new culture (by providing support & sense of community). Will Herberg (1955) – this is reason for high levels of religious participation among first-generation immigrants in USA. However, once a group e.g. Irish Catholics has made the transition into the wider society, religion may lose its roles & decline in importance. Ken Pryce (1979) – study of African Caribbean community in Bristol show that both cultural defence and cultural transition have been important. Argues that Pentecostalism is a highly adaptive ‘religion of the oppressed’. Pentecostalism helped African Caribbean’s to adapt to British society – helped members succeed by encouraging self-reliance and gave mutual support & hope of improving their situation. On the other hand – Rastafarianism represented a different response where African Caribbean’s radically rejected wider society as racist and exploitative.

45. Age and religion Young children- high participation as their parents makes them attend with them. Elderly- very religious, have more time to attend (not busy with jobs/children etc) Average age of churchgoers has risen from 37 in 1979 to 45 in 2005. Heelas et al have found that most people involved in the New Age movement are middle aged or older. The ageing effect View that people turn to religion as they get older. E.g. Heelas (2005) argues that people become more interested in spirituality as they get older, and closer to death (drawn from Kendal Project). – As result, more likely to go to church. The generational effect View that as society becomes more secular, each new generation is less religious than the one before. More old people than young people in church not because aging effect, but simply because they grew up at a time when religion was more popular. According to Voas and Crockett (2005) – two main explanations for age differences.

46. Old people and religion Disengagement – as people get older, they become detached from the integrating mechanisms of society, such as workplace participation - Older people may face a growing privatisation of their lives, with increasing social isolation as partners and friends die - Participation in religious organisation provides a form of social support, and a network of people to relate to Religious socialisation - the old generation in contemporary society are more likely to have had a great emphasis placed on religion through the education system and socialisation in the family when they were younger - this may have laid seeds which flower as they grow older and rediscover a religiosity which they ignored. Ill-health and death - older people are faced with declining health and death looming on the horizon – the things that religion concerns itself with - The aging process and disengagement from society may therefore generate an engagement with religion for comfort, coping, meaning and support

47. Young people and religion The expanded spiritual marketplace - Lynch – this means that there are now more sources for young people to draw on to build religious and spiritual beliefs, identities and lifestyles, finding expression outside traditional religions and religious organisations The privatisation of belief - young people may be choosing to treat their religion as a private matter - they may not feel they belong to any particular religion or hold any religious belief, - They may prefer not to make any public display of whatever they believe through involvement with religious organisations, or admit to them in surveys - Davie – this is believing without belonging Secular spirituality and the sacred - an agreement with Durkheim’s view of the sacred, as young people become attatched to objects, experiences or other things such as celebrities, football or clubbing, these are taking on the form of the ‘sacred’ in their lives, perhaps causing them to reflect on the meaning of their lives and the way they live them. - THUS, young people may not have lost all religiosity, but are simply finding new forms, many of which are associated more with the secular and non-religious world than with religious as it is presented and understood by most. Secularisation and the decline of metanarratives - Lyotard – metanarratives like religion have lost their power to influence how people think about, interpret, and explain the world. Young people may be becoming less religious because they no longer believe the old religious explanations, and can pick, mix, or reject any beliefs they choose Declining Religious Education - Bruce – The Church of England is increasingly unable to recruit young people by socialising them into religious thinking through Sunday school and RE as Sunday schools are declining, and, while required by law to hold Christian based assemblies, most secondary schools go for more general or personal learning. - THUS, the majority of young people don’t get any religious education at all, but this reflects the fact that most of them don’t want it young people are undoubtedly less religious in terms of their expressed religious belief in surveys and their participation in the mainstream Christian religions. -not true among young muslims, and young people seem more attracted to New Age spirituality and NRMs - The vast majority do not participate in either, though this does not mean that they are lacking in spirituality or belief, the way that these are being expressed may just be in a new privatised way which cannot be recorded by surveys

48. Ideology - marxist MARXIST- The ideas that people hold are formed by their position in society. -Ideology is the ideas of particular social groups reflecting their interests. -Dominant ideology – In this case the ruling class. - Mannheim – the ruling class deliberately obscure facts in order to conceal the inequalities of capitalist society, thus preserving existing patterns of inequality, the privileged position of the ruling class, and preventing any social change which may threaten them. -Althusser –The ideology is spread through ideological state apparatuses -Gramsci – hegemony – the ruling class, through dominant ideology, maintains power by persuading the working class to adopt ruling class ideology as part of their own beliefs and values, thus consenting to the idea, and not being forced.

49. Feminist FEMINIST - Patriarchal ideology - Supports and tries to justify the power of men in a patriarchal society. - Ideas are mainly concerned with protecting and promoting the interests of men. Radical feminists are most emphatic about the dominance of patriarchal ideology. Millet sees ideological factors as important in maintaining male dominance. Males are socialised into having a dominant temperament, and the society’s culture sees it as natural for men to have dominant roles. Myth and religion- for example the story of Adam and Eve- reinforce patriarchal ideology. However Millet believes non-ideological factors such as the use of violence, are also important in maintaining men’s dominance. Greer sees patriarchal culture as deeply entrenched in society. It is reflected in: Sexuality- women are expected to meet means needs Fashion and body image-women are expected to be obsessive about their physical appearance Fear of men- women are afraid of men and are restricted in their movement by fear of attack by men.

50. Science as a belief system Merton- CUDOS Scientific beliefs have grown as Communication- scientists share their findings through publications Universalism- theories or studies are tested by objective universal criteria such as retesting, they are not judged by the particular characteristics of the researcher Disinterestedness- as scientists publish their work to be falsified by others it is harder for them to commit fraud or say things to please others Organised scepticism- every idea is open to critism or questioning, no claims to the absolute and undisputed truth Kuhn: science is based on a set of shared assumptions- paradigms. A paradigm tells a scientist what reality is like, what problems to study, what methods/equipment to use etc. A scientist who challenges the fundamental assumptions of the paradigm could be ridiculed out of a job (like Velikovsky). Interpretivist sociologists have developed Kuhn’s ideas. They see that scientific knowledge is socially constructed; rather being objective it is created by social groups using the resources available to them. So what scientists believe to be true is a product of shared theories/paradigms that tell them what they expect to occur

51. Science Science as an open belief system Both works see scientific findings as open to criticism and falsification Religion though may be a closed belief system as it often claims to have the absolute truth Its knowledge is sacred and if it is questioned followers are accused as heresy Religion unlike science does not change or grow Popper Science has been successful it can be questioned, tested and improved or disproved A theory or study can be tested by others to see whether it is correct- if it can be falsified Scientific knowledge is also cumulative, building on and improving previous work. More accurate ideas replace outdated theories Popper suggests that people believe in science because it does not claim to have the absolute truth and it can change and evolve when new information is gathered unlike religion It is evidence based, not based on assumption.