1. Qualitative methods and analysis –A case study approach –Interviewing –focus groups –PAR techniques –textual analysis –Interviewing and focus groups (exercise)

2. Some characteristics of qualitative methods Used for a small number of case studies (or single case) Used for a small number of case studies (or single case) Characterised by a diversity of approaches and methods Characterised by a diversity of approaches and methods Generally post-positivist and highlights political nature of research, research as a human construction Generally post-positivist and highlights political nature of research, research as a human construction Influenced in particular by feminism and postmodernism (empowerment and emancipation as a goal) Influenced in particular by feminism and postmodernism (empowerment and emancipation as a goal) Recurrent elements Recurrent elements –In-depth explanatory study of a case/situation – generally ‘banal’, everyday life –Context important –Data derived from perceptions, experiences, analyses of local actors –Many interpretations possible, but some more compelling for theoretical reasons and/or on the grounds of internal consistency –Most analysis done with words, images…

3. A case study approach More a strategy than method – aims at understanding and explaining the case in depth, in its natural setting, with due regard to complexity and context More a strategy than method – aims at understanding and explaining the case in depth, in its natural setting, with due regard to complexity and context May be an individual, a group, an organisation, a community, a nation, a policy process, a decision, an incident or event, a social trend… May be an individual, a group, an organisation, a community, a nation, a policy process, a decision, an incident or event, a social trend… 4 characteristics 4 characteristics –Bounded – need to identify and describe these –Identify what is this a case of (theorising) –Need to preserve unity yet focus – research questions important –Multiple sources of data and methods likely to be used

4. Interviewing General guidelines Listen more than you speak – this is not about your views Listen more than you speak – this is not about your views Put questions in a straightforward, clear and non- threatening way – no jargon, no long questions Put questions in a straightforward, clear and non- threatening way – no jargon, no long questions Eliminate cues which lead interviewees to respond in a particular way – no leading or biased questions Eliminate cues which lead interviewees to respond in a particular way – no leading or biased questions Enjoy it (or at least look as though you do)! Enjoy it (or at least look as though you do)! Record (audio) all interviews – asking permission of the interviewee in advance to do so Record (audio) all interviews – asking permission of the interviewee in advance to do so

5. Interview schedule Introductory comments (+/- same for all) Introductory comments (+/- same for all) List of topic headings – possibly key questions to ask under these headings List of topic headings – possibly key questions to ask under these headings Set of associated prompts (for example…) – must be consistent with all interviewees with these Set of associated prompts (for example…) – must be consistent with all interviewees with these Closing comments Closing comments Also, use probes – devices to get the interviewee to expand on a response if you feel s/he has more to give – e.g. period of silence, an enquiring glance, repeat back what just said, ‘any more on this’, ‘but why’ method… Also, use probes – devices to get the interviewee to expand on a response if you feel s/he has more to give – e.g. period of silence, an enquiring glance, repeat back what just said, ‘any more on this’, ‘but why’ method…

6. Focus groups Useful if you wish to promote interaction within a particular group leading to more analysis and hopefully richer data Useful if you wish to promote interaction within a particular group leading to more analysis and hopefully richer data Disadvantages include difficulties in following up with particular individuals, power dynamics (1 or 2 people dominating), time required Disadvantages include difficulties in following up with particular individuals, power dynamics (1 or 2 people dominating), time required Follow more or less same format as for interviews although can also include some PAR techniques Follow more or less same format as for interviews although can also include some PAR techniques

7. Key to both Listen carefully Listen carefully Follow up responses you’re unclear of or where interviewee is not answering the question Follow up responses you’re unclear of or where interviewee is not answering the question Pilot and practice! Pilot and practice!

8. Data analysis – Coding of responses Codes are symbols (often numbers) used to identify particular responses or categories of response Codes are symbols (often numbers) used to identify particular responses or categories of response For open ended questions (as with your interview and focus groups), this inevitably involves some loss of information For open ended questions (as with your interview and focus groups), this inevitably involves some loss of information Transcription generally required Transcription generally required Order responses for each area (cut and paste) Order responses for each area (cut and paste) Try to develop a smallish set of categories for each Try to develop a smallish set of categories for each Code transcripts accordingly Code transcripts accordingly

9. Participatory Action Research (PAR) Deriving from participatory approaches to development Deriving from participatory approaches to development Empowerment of participants at the core Empowerment of participants at the core –(who are these?) Many different approaches and techniques Many different approaches and techniques

10. Some general principles A reversal of learning – learn from people, local knowledge A reversal of learning – learn from people, local knowledge Learning rapidly and progressively – conscious exploration, flexible use of methods, improvisation, cross-checking, adaptation (no blueprint) Learning rapidly and progressively – conscious exploration, flexible use of methods, improvisation, cross-checking, adaptation (no blueprint) Taking time – be relaxed, don’t rush; listen, don’t lecture Taking time – be relaxed, don’t rush; listen, don’t lecture Triangulation – use a range of methods, types of information, investigators, informants Triangulation – use a range of methods, types of information, investigators, informants Seeking diversity in information – beyond cross-checking and triangulation; deliberately look for anomalies, contradictions Seeking diversity in information – beyond cross-checking and triangulation; deliberately look for anomalies, contradictions

11. Some key PAR methods, techniques, tools Use of secondary sources Use of secondary sources –Documents, statistics, reports, books, files, aerial photos, maps Direct observation Direct observation Key indicators Key indicators –Local and global indicators Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviews –Key informants; focus groups Ranking and scoring exercises Ranking and scoring exercises –Well-being/wealth ranking; scoring and ranking of options; matrix scoring and ranking Construction and analysis of maps and models Construction and analysis of maps and models –Social and resource maps; topic and theme maps; census maps and models; transect walks

12. Some key PAR methods, techniques, tools – contd. Diagramming Diagramming –Causal, linkage and flow diagrammes; time lines/trend analysis; seasonal diagrammes; activity profiles/daily routines; venn diagrammes Case studies and stories Case studies and stories –Life histories; oral or written stories by key people Drama, games and role plays Drama, games and role plays Possible future and scenario workshops Possible future and scenario workshops Triangulation Triangulation –Data triangulation; investigator triangulation; theory triangulation; methodological trangulation Continuous analysis and reporting Continuous analysis and reporting Participatory planning, budgeting, monitoring and evaluation Participatory planning, budgeting, monitoring and evaluation –For projects – participation in all stages of project cycle

13. Advantages and disadvantages Advantages Prioritises local knowledge (relevance & empowerment) Prioritises local knowledge (relevance & empowerment) Incorporates learning (for all) Incorporates learning (for all) May facilitate investigation of sensitive issues (repro health, GBV) May facilitate investigation of sensitive issues (repro health, GBV)Disadvantages Local knowledge = whose knowledge? (power relations played out – vested interests) Local knowledge = whose knowledge? (power relations played out – vested interests) Information may not be reliable – proposals for action not always fully informed Information may not be reliable – proposals for action not always fully informed May expose and exacerbate local conflicts May expose and exacerbate local conflicts

14. Some considerations Timing – appropriate for all? Timing – appropriate for all? Location – appropriate for all? Location – appropriate for all? Representation – stratified sampling / marginalised groups Representation – stratified sampling / marginalised groups Relevance – all issues of relevance raised Relevance – all issues of relevance raised Equal roles / participation – technique design & facilitation Equal roles / participation – technique design & facilitation Learning and empowerment for participants Learning and empowerment for participants Follow up… Follow up…

15. Textual / content analysis Came to prominence at start of 20 th century – a series of quantitative analyses of newspapers, primarily in the US Came to prominence at start of 20 th century – a series of quantitative analyses of newspapers, primarily in the US –Statistical studies showed how ‘serious’ stories were consistently being dropped in favour of tabloid stories Extended subsequently to radio and television and onto advertising, other media outlets, policy documentation, speeches, letters, minutes of meetings, school textbooks (can even analyse interview transcripts in this manner) Extended subsequently to radio and television and onto advertising, other media outlets, policy documentation, speeches, letters, minutes of meetings, school textbooks (can even analyse interview transcripts in this manner) –Discourse analysis is a more complex form of content analysis

16. How to carry out a content analysis Start with a research question Start with a research question –E.g. ‘Is there a greater emphasis on gender issues within Irish Aid than there was 10 years ago?’ Decide on a sampling strategy Decide on a sampling strategy –What documents and why? Define the recording unit Define the recording unit –E.g. Individual word (no. mentions – differentiating between different senses), themes, characters, no. of paragraphs / sections on topic, number of stories on topic, column inches, size of headline, number/type of pictures… Construct categories for analysis Construct categories for analysis –E.g. How is issue treated, what values revealed, what intentions revealed, what characteristics used in describing, what actors, any conflicts revealed… Test coding on samples of text and assess reliability Test coding on samples of text and assess reliability –To test for clarity and lack of ambiguity in above categories Carry out analysis Carry out analysis –Most commonly relate variables from content analysis to ‘outside’ variables (e.g. gender of person producing documents, their educational/professional background etc…)

17. Advantages and disadvantages to CA Advantages An ‘unobtrusive’ measure – you can observe without being observed An ‘unobtrusive’ measure – you can observe without being observed Data are permanent and therefore can be subject to re-analysis, allowing reliability checks and replication studies Data are permanent and therefore can be subject to re-analysis, allowing reliability checks and replication studies May provide a low-cost form of longitudinal analysis May provide a low-cost form of longitudinal analysisDisadvantages Can be quite laborious and time-consuming Can be quite laborious and time-consuming Documents available may be limited or partial Documents available may be limited or partial Documents have been written for specific purpose and it’s difficult to allow for the biases or distortions this introduces Documents have been written for specific purpose and it’s difficult to allow for the biases or distortions this introduces As with other approaches, it is very difficult to assess causal relationships – are the docs causes of the phenomena you are interested in or reflections of them? As with other approaches, it is very difficult to assess causal relationships – are the docs causes of the phenomena you are interested in or reflections of them?

18. Data analysis: Some basic rules Begin analysis as soon as begin collecting data – do not allow data to accumulate without preliminary analysis and adapt questions / focus as continue Begin analysis as soon as begin collecting data – do not allow data to accumulate without preliminary analysis and adapt questions / focus as continue Order/index/file what you collect as you go along Order/index/file what you collect as you go along Generate themes/categories/codes as you go along – include everything at first, you can throw some out later Generate themes/categories/codes as you go along – include everything at first, you can throw some out later Dealing with data is not a routine task – think, reflect! Make notes, matrices, tables, flow charts/causal networks to help you move the data up to a conceptual level – play with the data Dealing with data is not a routine task – think, reflect! Make notes, matrices, tables, flow charts/causal networks to help you move the data up to a conceptual level – play with the data As there is no one ‘right’ way of analysing qualitative data, it is important you be systematic and organised As there is no one ‘right’ way of analysing qualitative data, it is important you be systematic and organised You are essentially trying to construct an explanatory picture by taking apart your data in various ways and putting it back together – comparison is an important tool You are essentially trying to construct an explanatory picture by taking apart your data in various ways and putting it back together – comparison is an important tool

19. ‘Playing’ & drawing conclusions – some tactics Counting – categorising and measuring the frequency of occurrence of the categories Counting – categorising and measuring the frequency of occurrence of the categories Patterning – noting recurring patterns and themes Patterning – noting recurring patterns and themes Clustering – grouping of objects, persons, activities etc with similar characteristics Clustering – grouping of objects, persons, activities etc with similar characteristics Factoring – grouping variables into a small number of hypothetical factors Factoring – grouping variables into a small number of hypothetical factors Relating variables – explore relationships (if any) between variables Relating variables – explore relationships (if any) between variables Building causal networks – chains or webs of linkages between variables Building causal networks – chains or webs of linkages between variables Relating findings to general theoretical framework – Attempt to find general propositions that account for the particular findings in your study Relating findings to general theoretical framework – Attempt to find general propositions that account for the particular findings in your study

20. Rigour in qualitative research Credibility (analogous to internal validity in quant apps) Credibility (analogous to internal validity in quant apps) –Was the subject/topic accurately identified and described? (internal validity in quant) –Suggested techniques – prolonged involvement, persistent observation, triangulation, peer debriefing Transferability (analogous to generalisability in quant apps) Transferability (analogous to generalisability in quant apps) –Specify fully the theoretical framework used Dependability (analogous to reliability in quant apps) Dependability (analogous to reliability in quant apps) –Mix of credibility and triangulation Confirmability (corresponds to objectivity in quant apps) Confirmability (corresponds to objectivity in quant apps) –Enquiry audit possible – audit trail required (info required = raw data; original proposal/personal notes; pilot forms/schedules etc; summaries/ codes/patterns/matrices; procedures/designs strategies; write ups)

21. Interviewing and focus groups (exercise) Group A: Interview with secondary teacher Group A: Interview with secondary teacher (played by niamh) Feedback from members of groups B & C Group B: Interview with ministry official Group B: Interview with ministry official (played by niamh) Feedback from members of groups A & C Group C: Focus group with teachers and students Group C: Focus group with teachers and students (played by members of groups A and B) Feedback from members of groups B & C