1. The beginning of the Cold War and the 1950s

2. Who was to blame? Various views… Evil intentions of the USSR. Soviet actions were defensive, not aggressive, in response to US actions (revisionist history of the late 1960s). Synthesis view -- both sides shared the blame -- probably misunderstood each other

3. Causes of the Cold War total collapse of Germany, Japan and France, US and USSR stepped and came into conflict, areas where Soviet and American interests had not before been in direct conflict, like Iran and Eastern Europe. ideology - opposing poles of capitalism and Marxism-Leninism shape highly negative images of each other -- America (brutal, totalitarian communist state) vs USSR (exploitative, imperialist, capitalist state);

4. More Causes… Soviets insist on a defense perimeter “iron curtain” to include central and eastern Europe with influence in eastern Mediterranean and Middle East as well. US desire access to all world markets and saw self as heir to traditional British empire interests and policies. Truman and foreign advisers view Soviet actions as aggressive and threatening while Soviet leaders around Stalin suspect Western (esp. Britain and US) powers of trying to rob the USSR of wartime gains and have western European border with anticommunist states like after WW I.

5. Areas of conflict: Bipolar World The government of postwar Poland The governments of postwar Eastern Europe Postwar planning for Germany, including Soviet demands for large- scale reparations. The structure of the new United Nations Organization International controls for the atomic bomb and atomic energy.

6. American beliefs for the Cold War Soviet intent to dominate the entire world = a life and death struggle; Communism was monolithic - All communist movements in the world were controlled by the USSR whose one aim was advancing their interests Domino Principle - If one nation went communist (from Soviet pressure), those nations bordering it would soon be communist as well Best way to fight Soviets was containment: (George F. Keenan of the State Department) The article suggested that a defensive measure against a ruthless adversary over the long term

7. America Responds… Truman Doctrine (1947) Turkey and Greece "It must be US policy to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure." Congress, with Republican majorities in both houses, approved $400 million in aid Marshall Plan 1947 Post-WW2 Europe, devastated by the war, faced a leadership vacuum because the traditional governments of Britain, France, Germany and Italy were bankrupt. Truman believed that communism operated best among political & economic chaos postwar Europe emerged as the cold war key arena.

8. More on the Marshall Plan The US was not directing its efforts against any specific nation or doctrine, but against "hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos." The purpose was to revive "a working economy in the world so as to permit the emergence of political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist." Soviet foreign minister saw it as a US "imperialist" plot to enslave Europe. Provides $12 billlion

9. Other ways to fight the Cold War Department of Defense created from Departments of War, Navy and Army Air Force a third major military branch Joint-Chiefs of Staff to coordinate military activities; National Security Council to coordinate the activities of the Departments of State and Defense and to advise the US President; Central Intelligence Agency as a branch of the NSC to correlate and evaluate intelligence activity which related to national security. NSC 68 -- National Security Council recommended increasing US defense spending by 4X, Selective Service Act - June 1948 - This peace time draft required the registration of all men between ages 18 and 25

10. The Berlin Blockade 1948 The four occupying powers disagreed over the government for post-war Germany: a centralized form (Soviets) versus a federal form of government (Britain and the US). After the Soviet request for $10 billion in reparations was rejected and discussions broke down, the Western powers continued talks without the Soviets.

11. The Berlin Airlift 24 June 48 - 25 May 49 USSR discontinued all land traffic between Berlin and West Germany; West airlifted supplies between West Ger. and 2,100,000 people in Berlin 32 planes in air! Land every 90 seconds! The airlift lasted 321 days before Soviet ban finally lifted; failed to alter US policy toward Germany. May 1949 – Ger. Democratic Republic (East Germany) formed. Containment was working…

12. A call for alliances to fight the war Organization of American States (1948) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949) First peacetime military alliance for the US since the Treaty of Amity and Commerce in 1778 with France 12 nations in Washington D.C. signed a military alliance -- NATO -- Britain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands + US + Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway and Portugal. Article V - Attacking one member would be perceived as attacking all of them

13. The Creation of Israel (1) Britain no longer maintain the mandate over Palestine (had since WW I) returning its care to the UN UN General Assembly divide Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. Israel Recognized -- 15 May 1948 Israel declared its independence and was first recognized by the US (almost immediately). Arab states refuse to recognize Israel's right to exist and went to war with Israel, a war that ended with an UN armistice. Continued US support for Israel remained an irritant between the Arab states and the US

14. China a. After World War II, the US aided the Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek, who controlled the South against the communists in the North led by Mao Tse- tung. US aid continued through 1948, but not at the levels requested by the Nationalists. Aug 1949State Dept: in order to save the Nationalists from collapse, the US would have to intervene militarily because of military Aug. 8 Dec - Nationalists fled mainland China to the island of Formosa (aka Taiwan). h. The battleground shifted to the UN, over who was the legitimate representative of China - Nationalist China or People's Republic of China (communists).

15. Korea Japanese troops in Korea above the 38th parallel surrendered to Soviet Allied troops and to western Allied troops below the 38th parallel. US announced its intention to stay in Korea until it was united and free. question of Korean independence was referred to the UN which planned free elections in the spring of 1948. UN Temporary Commission on Korea was prevented from entering North Korea by the USSR, but elections were held in South Korea. Republic of Korea was organized under the UN flag with a capital at Seoul, South Korea, but it was not recognized by the North.

16. The Korean War 25 June 1950 - North Korean communist forces using Soviet weapons and tanks invaded South Korea. In the absence of the Soviet representative, the UN Security Council ordered an immediate cease fire and a withdrawal of the 70,000 North Korean troops. 26 June - Truman authorized the US Navy and Air Force to aid South Korea, begin a naval blockade of North Korea, give additional aid to Indochina and move the 7th Fleet to prevent any attack on Formosa.

17. The Korean War 28 June - Seoul fell to North Korean forces, US ground troops were ordered into the fighting and authorized to conduct missions above the 38th parallel. Gen Douglas MacArthur, designated commander of UN forces, led forces from ten nations, including one division from the British Commonwealth. Although officially a UN policing action, the bulk of the fighting forces and support were American, who by mid-Aug, had 65,000 troops in Korea.

18. The Korean War UN troops recaptured Seoul after MacArthur conducted a counter-offensive behind enemy lines with an amphibious landing on 15 Sept at Inchon, an outpost of Seoul. 29 Sept - US-backed South Korean troops crossed into North Korea in pursuit of retreating forces. 11 Oct - Red China denounced the invasion of North Korea by UN forces, and warned that it would not stand idly by, threatening to intervene if hostile forces approached the Yalu River. e. 20 Nov - UN troops reached the Yalu River on the border of Manchuria: 200,000 Chinese "volunteers" crossed the Yalu River in a Red counter-offensive

19. Korea Jan 1951 - UN and South Korean forces were pushed South and Seoul was recaptured by the North. Seoul was recaptured by a UN counter offensive after which the UN again called for a cease fire and a return to the status quo. MacArthur, desiring retaliation for the humiliating entrance of China, called for an invasion of China (1) an attack by Formosa on mainland China; (2) a blockade of the entire Chinese coast; (3) bombing bridges over the Yalu river and Chinese bases in Manchuria

20. The Removal of MacArthur Truman reluctant to expand the war: uncertainty of what the Soviets would do;an Allies faced problems elsewhere: France in Indochina, Britain in Malaya, communist activities in the Philippines and India's struggle over Tibet. After Truman announced plans to negotiate a truce, MacArthur wrote there is no substitute for victory, denouncing reluctance to take war into China. Truman replaces MacArthur and condemned for treatment of war hero. MacArthur before Congress urged expanding the war into China, stating his famous “Old soldiers never die, they just fade away.”

21. End of Korean War armistice negotiations last two years 1952, Eisenhower promised to go to the peace talks, if elected, to get then moving again; unclear if aided the end war because talks continued for six months before an armistice was finished. Ike had threatened to use nuclear weapons. 5 March 1953 - Stalin's death left North Korea uncertain about future Soviet backing; breakthrough at the peace talks 3 weeks later. c. 27 July 1953 - armistice signed by the UN, communist China and North Korea sets a de- militarized zone along the 38th parallel.

22. Impacts and Costs Korean Conflict reinforced within US State Department that "containment" was the correct response to Soviet-backed Communist aggression. US casualties included 33,629 dead from battle and 21,617 from other causes, 103,492 wounded and 7,955 MIAs. b. The Koreans and Chinese suffered over 1 million casualties.

23. Internal Security Alger Hiss Case- Whitaker Chambers-admitted former Communist courier names Hiss, State Dept & U.N., as prewar Communist. Hiss sues Chambers for libel and Chambers produces State dept. documents. Hiss indicted for perjury for testimony before House. 1st trial: hung jury 2nd trial: 5 year convictions. Freedom of Information Act allows a look at Hiss evidence-allowed to return to law practice. Communist trials: 11 convicted Smith Act (Alien Registration Act) Unlawful to advocate or teach overthrow of government and to organize or become member of group advocating force/violent overthrow

24. More Internal Security Julius and Ethel Rosenberg atomic espionage and execution June 19, 1953 Internal Security Act (McCarran Act) passed over Truman veto: Registration of Communists and allow for internment during national emergencies.

25. Government Changes Presidential Succession Act: Alters 1886 law and makes Speaker of the House, President Pro Tempore of the Senate, Secretary of State and cabinet positions in order of origin 22nd Amendment: two terms or 10 year limit for President

26. Election of 1948 Truman vs Dewey vs Thurmond (Dixiecrats)

27. The Eisenhower Year 1953-1961 Republicans nominated Eisenhower in 1952 for President, and to satisfy conservatives, young newly-elected Sen Richard M. Nixon (CA) was nominated Vice-President an anti-communist by prosecuting Alger Hiss. Republicans successfully painted the Democrats as "soft on communism" Republicans controlled Congress (Senate 48-47; House 221-211; 1 other)

28. Cold War in Southeast Asia SEATO - Southeast Asian Treaty Organization -1954 Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and the US) pledged joint action against aggression upon any member nation. SEATO pledged to support and aid South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos excluded by Geneva Agreements from entering into separate military alliances.

29. The “New Look” 1952 Republican pledge to balance the budget while maintaining the new defense agreements (often requiring military support) The military got a new look: less emphasis on ground forces and more reliance on nuclear weapons

30. American Cold War Strategy under Dulles Massive Retaliation – Sec. of State John Foster Dulles (1954) If a country were to attack the US or an American ally, the US would not hesitate to strike with full instant nuclear retaliation Inflexible -- it is sensible if the arena were Europe, but if the arena shifted to Asia, Africa or the Middle East? It was not thought so…credibility?

31. More crises in the 1950s… Guatemala Coup 1954 Taiwan Straits Crisis Sept 1954 French Indochina 1954 Suez Crisis 1956 Hungarian Revolt 1956 Cuba 1959 (photo Castro & Nixon ’59)

32. Attempts to Thaw the Cold War 1955 French Premier, British Prime Minister, Eisenhower and Nikita Khrushchev,First Secretary of the Communist Party USSR met in Geneva to solve conflict between the nations. Issues (1) reunification of Germany (2) European Security (3) disarmament (4) improvement of East-West relations. No results except: good spirit, agreement to meet 1960 in Paris, & Khrushchev would to US in 1959 and Eisenhower to Moscow in 1960

33. Attempts Sour - U-2 Spy Plane Incident Sept 1959 Khrushchev visit several US cities before talking with IKE. When asked what he wanted to see in the US, Khrushchev stated Disneyland. Walt said “NO!” Nixon, 2-week tour of Poland and USSR 1 May 1960 - an American U-2 CIA plane was shot down, conducting photographic reconnaissance 1, 200 miles inside the Soviet Union. Francis Gary Powers the pilot confessed to being a CIA spy.

34. A chance for peace and the 1960 elections… Eisenhower admits on he had ordered the flight of the planes for reconnaissance purposes. Paris Summit 16-17 May 1960 canceled! What if? Powers was tried, convicted of espionage, sentenced to 10 years; exchanged in 1962 for Russian spy Rudolf Abel. Eisenhower ends with growing tensions between the East and West again.

35. Changes at home EO 99819 Truman desegregated the Armed Forces after improper treatment of Black ex- servicemen in the South 19 Dec 1947 - Jackie Robinson broke baseball's color barrier, signing with Dodgers

36. Civil Rights Changes 1954 Brown v Board of Education (Topeka) 1955 Rosa Parks and the Montgomery boycott 1957 Central H.S. – Little Rock, AK desegregation

37. Automobile Industry 1950s The automobile became the symbol of success as Americans Road building increased to 70-80,000 miles of new highway construction annually. Federal Highway Act 1956 - Interstate Highway System of 41,000 miles including 5,500 of urban freeways

38. Growth of suburbs 7 Levittown 1940 - the US was 54% urban, but by 1960 it was 64% (although the definition of urban was expanded by the census takers. Levitt's Levittown Originally built on potato fields, the row housing was for the young men returning from WWII to have affordable housing. The original ranches purchased for just under $8,000. No African Americans allowed!

39. Raising the family with Dr. Benjamin Spock 1942 - 3 million births rose in 1946 to over 4 million births. Emphasis on the woman's role as homemaker momism - In child- centered homes, wives sacrificed for their children Dr. Benjamin Spock “Child Rearing” encouraged parents to let children develop their own personalities, giving rise to later permissiveness Parents wanted to protect children from events like WW II, Great Depression

40. Rock and Roll The younger generation became big spenders and enjoyed the new music craze -- Rock and Roll led by stars like Chuck Berry, Elvis Presley, Bill Haley.

41. The beginning of the rebel… The beginning of the counterculture with the “Beat” generation and the writings of Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg. Rebel without a Cause and James Dean in 1955.