1. APES: Thursday, August 7 th Turn in Signed Student Info Sheet to In Box Today’s Schedule: ▫Lab Safety Video & Contract ▫Start Unit 1 Notes!

2. Science Review: Method, Matter, Energy & Systems Chapter 3

3.  Science = human effort to discover how the world works Scientific Method: 1.Observation 2.Problem or Question 3.Research (lit review) 4.Hypothesis 5.Experimentation 6.Analyze Data 7.Conclusions 8.Publish

4. 1. Observation Observe a phenomenon of interest Observations stem from ▫First hand experience ▫Examination of literature ▫Discussion with other scientists Example: Eating chicken soup seems to cure the common cold

5. 2. Question Question: why? how? about observation ▫What characteristic of chicken soup makes it seem to cure a cold?

6. Hypothesis: possible explanation of observation or answer to question = A predication about the relationships between the Independent and Dependent variables ▫If the soup temperature is decreased, then the cold will not be “cured” 3. Research & 4. Hypothesis

7. Variables 1.Independent variable (IV) (aka treatment variable) = factor that is manipulated by experimenter  It’s what you’re testing  The effect of ____IV_______.... Hypothesis: The heat from the soup “cures” the cold. What is the Independent variable?  Temperature of chicken soup

8. Variables cont. Levels of the Independent variable: = specific groups or categories chosen by the experimenter Hypothesis: The heat from the soup “cures” the cold.  IV = Temperature of chicken soup  Levels of IV = cold, warm hot; 50°, 75°, 90°

9. Variables cont. 2. Dependent variable (DV) = factor that responds to the changes in Independent Variable (IV)  It’s what you observe/measure  Affected by the IV Hypothesis: The heat from the soup “cures” the cold. What is the Dependent variable?  Curing the cold/ “patient condition”

10. 5. Experimentation Tests the hypothesis by collecting data Controls: aspects of experiment that are kept same for entire experiment/ all groups  Example: Brand of chicken soup  Other examples? Why have controls? ▫So you know that the changes in the Dependent Variable (YOUR RESULTS), are only due to the Independent Variable (YOUR MANIPULATION) and not some other factor

11. APES: Friday, August 8 th Turn in Signed Student Info Sheet to In Box if didn’t yesterday Today’s Schedule: ▫Sign Safety Contracts ▫Get Textbooks ▫Get Unit 1 Vocab List ▫Get & go over APES in the News Project ▫Cont. Unit 1 Notes?

12. APES: Monday, August 11 th Reminders: ▫Unit 1 Vocab Due with Quiz on Friday, 8/15 ▫Unit 1 Test tentatively scheduled for Tuesday, 8/19 Today’s Schedule: ▫Cont. Unit 1 Notes ▫Graphing worksheet

13. 6. Data Analysis & Presentation When run an experiment, you collect data Data analysis = calculations, statistics Need to present data  2 ways: ▫Tables and graphs Allows for quick organization & understanding of results

14. Tables: ▫Used during experiment for raw data ▫Or, summarizes raw data into averages and statistics for final presentation Tables consist of 4 components: 1.Name and Number -Table 1 2. Title 3. Column headings - data labels, with units (minutes, cm, etc.) 4. Body - raw or final data

15. Table Example: Table 1. How many drops of water can fit on a coin? Trial1Trial 2Trial 3Average Dime Penny Nickel Quarter

16. Graphs Independent variable (IV) goes on X-axis Dependent variable (DV) goes on Y-axis Graphs always have: ▫Name and number (Figure 1) ▫Title caption (following Figure number) ▫Axis labels with units ▫Increments along graph must be proportional Y axis X axis

17. Figures (graphs) Two main types of graphs: ▫Line graphs: show relationship between time or another continuous IV and DV ▫Bar graphs: show relationship between a discrete IV and DV

18. Discrete & Continuous Variables ▫Continuous variables: variables that are measured quantitatively (in numbers)  EXAMPLES: Length, temperature, weight ▫Discrete variables: variables that are measured qualitatively (in qualities, groups, etc.)  EXAMPLES: Sex, race, color, brands  There’s no number to this variable

19. Graph Example Figure 1. Amount of Rainfall (cm) at 3 Sites

20. Graph Example Figure 2. Percent eaten of seed types A, B, C at 3 bird feeders

21. 7.Conclusions & 8. Publish When you interpret & discuss results ▫What does your data indicate? ▫Do you accept or reject the hypothesis? ▫How does it compare with past, related research Repeat & expand experiments Communicate results by publishing scientific articles in journals

22. APES: Tuesday, August 12 th Rapid Assessment: What is the multiplication factor for µ? Reminders: ▫Unit 1 Vocab Due with Quiz on Friday, 8/15 ▫Unit 1 Test tentatively scheduled for Tuesday, 8/19 Today’s Schedule: ▫Cont. Unit 1 Notes ▫Discuss Graphing worksheet & Turn In ▫Metric Conversions worksheet homework

23.  Hypothesis, Theory, or Law  Hypothesis: unconfirmed explanation of observed phenomenon that can be tested by further research. (ex: use of stem cells can cure spinal cord injuries)  Theory: hypothesis verified in so many experiments it is believed to be true by experts. (Theory of Evolution, Big Bang Theory)  “Best & most reliable knowledge we have about how nature works”  Law: Theories continuously supported over decades. Laws of science can’t be broken; happen same way every time. (Laws of Thermodynamics; Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion; Newton’s Laws, etc.)

24. Math Review – What you should already know, but just in case… Scientific Notation ▫Serves to make really big or small numbers easier to read & say ▫Uses exponents of 10 Examples: ▫2,000 = 2.0 x 10 3 ▫0.00056 = 5.6 x 10 -4 ▫3,000,000,000 = 3 billion = 3.0 x 10 9 ▫7 = 7.0 x 10 0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AWof6knvQwE

25. Math Review Working with Scientific Notation ▫When adding or subtracting:  Put in same exponent, then add/subtract numbers (exponent stays same)  Example: (1.9 x 10 -3 ) – (1.5 x 10 -4 ) = (19 x 10 -4 ) - (1.5 x 10 -4 ) = 17.5 x 10 -4 = 1.75 x 10 -3

26. Math Review Working with Scientific Notation ▫When multiplying numbers:  Multiply numbers  Add exponents  Example, (3.1 x 10 5 ) (4.5 x 10 5 ) =13.95 x 10 10 or 1.4 x 10 11 ▫When dividing numbers:  Divide numbers  Subtract exponents  Example: 9 x 10 5 = 3 x 10 2 3 x 10 3

27. International System of Units (SI) aka Metric System ▫Basic or Base Units:  Meter (m) = basic unit of length (height, width, diameter)  Gram (g) = basic unit of weight  Liter (L) = basic unit of volume; amount of liquid or gas Math Review

28. Units – Area and Volume ▫Area – m 2, cm 2, mm 2, etc ▫Volume – ml, l, cm 3, m 3, mm 3 ▫Volume Conversions  1 ml = 1 cm 3  1 l = 1000 ml Math Review

29. SI Prefixes & Conversions Based on Multiples of 10  To convert among units: Multiply by 10 x to get smaller unit (need more) Divide by 10 x to get larger unit (need less) MOVE DECIMAL POINT LEFT or RIGHT

30. To Remember… Giga (G) (10 9 ) Mega (M) (10 6 ) King: Kilo (k) (10 3 ) Henry: Hecto (h) (10 2 ) Died: Deka (da) (10 1 ) By: base metric unit (10 0 ), i.e. g, l, or m Drinking: Deci (d) (10 -1 ) Chocolate: Centi (c) (10 -2 ) Milk: Milli (m) (10 -3 ) Micro (µ) (10 -6 ) Nano (n) (10 -9 )

31. Conversion Examples: 3 step method ___ centimeters (cm) = 245 kilometers (km)? ▫Step 1: Are you converting to a larger or smaller unit?  SMALLER: cm = 10 -2 while km = 10 3 ▫Step 2: Move decimal accordingly… left or right? How many moves?  RIGHT (b/c need more b/c it’s smaller!)  5 moves (b/c 3 – (-2) = 5) ▫Step 3: Obtain answer:  245 km = 24500000 = 24,500,000 cm

32. Conversion Examples cont. How many liters (l) in 37 milliliters (ml)? ▫Step 1: Are you converting to a larger or smaller unit?  LARGER: l = base unit = 10 0 while ml = 10 -3 ▫Step 2: Move decimal accordingly… left or right? How many moves?  LEFT (b/c need less)  3 moves (b/c 0 – (-3) = 3) ▫Step 3: Obtain answer:  37 ml =.037 l = 0.037l

33. APES: Wednesday, August 13 th Reminders: ▫Unit 1 Vocab Due with Quiz on Friday, 8/15 ▫Unit 1 Test tentatively scheduled for Tuesday, 8/19 Today’s Schedule: ▫Scientific Method Lab with Ms. Gail

34. Notes for Lab Follow Instructions After, pH test – do rest of tests on plastic plate ▫Use black dropper to put drops of samples on plate DO NOT put pepper, salt, etc. into sample’s cup

35. APES: Thursday, August 14 th Reminders: ▫Unit 1 Vocab Due with Quiz on Friday, 8/15 ▫NOW Unit 1 Test scheduled for Thursday, 8/21 Today’s Schedule: ▫Cont. Unit 1 Notes ▫Metric Conversion WS

36.  Important Features of the Scientific Process:  Skepticism: reserve doubt for anything unconfirmed or unverified  Reproducibility: Data/results must be able to be reproduced by others. Once is never enough!!  Peer Review: Send off methods, results, and conclusions to other experts in that field. They review and respond. Then can publish in scientific journals.

37. Science has limitations ▫Hypotheses & theories have high probability of being true while not being absolute. Nothing is “proven” – always some uncertainty ▫Environmental phenomena involve many interacting variables and complex interactions ▫Statistical methods are used to estimate very large or very small numbers ▫Scientific process is limited to the natural world (not ethical, philosophical or religious debate)

38.  Sound Science  Consensus science: widely accepted by experts.. also called sound science.  Multiple peer review leads to sound science – any flaws are found and theories are modified in the “frontier science” stage. Junk Science  Results or hypotheses that are portrayed as sound science, but are not well tested or peer reviewed  Loved by the media and politicians http://www.dhmo.org/

39.  Systems and Models  System: set of components that interact in a regular or predictable way  3 key components: Inputs (from the environment), output

40.  Feedback Loops  Feedback loop: When output is fed back into system as an input and leads to changes in that system  Positive feedback loop: causes a change in same direction  Examples:   Oxytocin & contractions

41.  Feedback Loops  Negative feedback loop: causes a change in the opposite direction  Examples:  body temperature & sweating  Recycling cans

42. APES: Friday, August 15 th Turn in Unit 1 Vocab to IN BOX! Reminders: ▫Unit 1 Test is Thursday, 8/21 Today’s Schedule: ▫Vocab Quiz ▫Cont. Unit 1 Notes ▫Atomic Homework

43.  Feedback Loops  Time delay: amount of time between input and response to it. If too long, a system may cross the tipping point & no longer be able to be repaired  Tipping point (Threshold level): the point at which a fundamental shift in the behavior of a system occurs  CLIMATE CHANGE!

44. Science

45.  Systems and Models  Synergistic interaction/ Synergy: two or more processes interact and the combined effect is greater than the sum of their separate effects  Example: Two people can each lift 100 pounds. Working together they can lift 275 pounds (not 200)  Systems are too complex to fully predict all outcomes of any given action  Butterfly Effect: you can never change just one thing (Chaos Theory)

46. Matter = anything that has mass and takes up space  Found in two forms:  Elements: distinctive building block - cannot be broken down into simpler substances; on periodic table  Compounds: 2+ elements held together in fixed proportions  Important elements in APES: hydrogen (H), carbon (C), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F), bromine (Br), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), and uranium (U) CHEMISTRY REVIEW!

47.  Atoms = smallest unit of matter that Exhibits characteristics of that element  Atomic Theory: all elements are made up of atoms  Parts of the atom  Proton: positively charged particle. Found in nucleus  Neutron: neutral / no charge. Found in nucleus  Electron: negatively charged. Orbits the nucleus. Responsible for bonding to hold compounds together

48.  Atoms  Atomic number: # of protons in nucleus; defines element  Neutral atoms have same number of protons and electrons  Mass number (atomic mass): total # of protons & neutrons  Isotopes: forms of an element having the same atomic number (# of protons) but different mass (# of neutrons)  Example: Hydrogen isotopes: hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 (deuterium), hydrogen-3 (tritium)

49.  Molecule: combination of 2+ atoms of the same or different elements held by chemical bonds Two Kinds of Bonds:  Ionic bond: electrons transferred  Covalent bond: electrons shared Important molecules & compounds in APES: O 2, N 2, Cl 2, nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen chloride (HCl), H 2 O, nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), ozone (O 3 ), methane (CH 4 ), hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ), sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ), nitric acid (HNO 3 ), glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 )

50. Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds Organic Hydrocarbons: molecules with H and C (CH 4 – methane) Chlorinated hydrocarbons: H, Cl, and C (C 14 H 9 Cl 5 – DDT) Simple carbohydrates: C, H, and O (C 6 H 12 O 6 – glucose) Inorganic – no carbon- carbon or carbon- hydrogen bonds NaCl H 2 O HNO 3 O 3 H 2 S CO CO 2

51. APES: Monday, August 18 th Reminders: ▫Atomic Structure Worksheet due Tomorrow! ▫Unit 1 Test is Thursday, 8/21 Today’s Schedule: ▫Finish Unit 1 Notes ▫Get back graded work & discuss ▫Start Half-Life Problems?

52.  Ions: Atoms that lost or gained electrons & now have a charge  Metals tend to lose electrons to become positive (cations)  Non-metals tend to gain electrons to become negative (anions)  The opposite charges can attract each other and cause an ionic bond

53. pH: concentration of Hydrogen (H + ) or Hydroxide (OH - ) ions in solution ▫Neutral = 7 ▫Acids: more H + than OH - ; ph < 7 ▫Bases: more OH - than H + ; ph > 7

54. Matter Quality: how useful a form of matter is to us as a resource  High quality matter: useful, concentrated, near surface of Earth, high potential for resource  Low quality matter: dilute, hard to find, low potential  Example: aluminum ore is low quality while recycled aluminum cans is high quality  Example: solid salt in a salt mine is high quality while the salt in the ocean is low quality

55.  Matter Undergoes Physical, Chemical and Nuclear Changes  Physical change: no change in chemical composition  Example: water to ice to steam (H 2 O  H 2 O  H 2 O)  Chemical change: change in chemical composition (chemical reaction)  Example: burning coal: C + O 2  CO 2  Nuclear change: change in nuclei of its atoms Law of Conservation of Matter: You cannot create nor destroy matter, it can only be changed

56.  Nuclear Change: 3 types:  Radioactive decay: when unstable isotopes spontaneously emit high-energy radiation (gamma rays), fast-moving particles (alpha or beta), or both  Nucleus throws off particles in order to become stable in a predictable manner for each element  Half-life: how long it takes for one half of the amount of material to turn into a different isotope (or time to reduce by ½)  IMPORTANT: Dangerous radioactive materials take 10 half lives to become safe

57.  Half-life Examples:  Plutonium-239 has a half life of 24,000 years. How long must it be stored before it will be at a safe level? 10 half lives x 24,000 years = 240,000 yrs  Iodine-131 has a half life of 8 days. After 4 half-lives, what fraction of the sample is still radioactive? 1/2^4 = 1/16  List the fraction amounts for each half-life up to 10 half lives 1 – 1/2, 2 – 1/4, 3 – 1/8, 4 – 1/16, 5 – 1/32, 6 – 1/64, 7 – 1/128, 8 – 1/256, 9 – 1/512, 10 – 1/1024…

58. Nuclear Fission: when large, unstable nucleus is split apart into lighter nuclei  releases energy and neutrons. The neutrons will make other unstable nuclei split. This is a chain reaction.  Conventionally use Uranium in U.S. power plants

59. Nuclear Fusion: when two light elements, like hydrogen, are forced together at extremely high temps until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus  release tons of energy  Stars use this; you get A LOT more power from fusion than fission  Hydrogen bomb: combination of hydrogen into helium  D-T fusion is deuterium (H-2) with tritium (H-3) to make Helium and one neutron (used in thermonuclear weapons)

60. Hydrogen-3 (tritium nucleus) 100 million °C Reaction conditions Energy Products Neutron Nuclear fusion Fuel Hydrogen-2 (deuterium nucleus) Helium-4 nucleus Proton

61. Energy: capacity to do work or to transfer heat ▫Two main types:  Kinetic : energy of motion  Electricity, wind  Heat  Electromagnetic radiation  Potential: stored energy  Example: reservoir of water, chemical energy stored in coal

62. Types of Kinetic Energy: ▫Heat: total kinetic energy of all moving atoms in a given substance ▫Temperature: average speed of motion of the atoms in a sample of matter

63. Types of Kinetic Energy: ▫Electromagnetic Radiation: energy traveling in a wave  Different forms with different wavelengths and energy content  Visible light is one small part of the EM spectrum

64. Energy Quality: measure of the capacity of a type of energy to do useful work  High quality energy: great capacity to do useful work b/c it’s concentrated  Example: high-temp heat, concentrated sunlight, high-speed wind, burning fossil fuels  Low quality energy: too dispersed to do useful work

65. First Law of Thermodynamics/ Law of Conservation of Energy  Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transformed (changed from one form to another) Second Law of Thermodynamics  When energy changes form, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality, less useful energy.  Heat radiated into environment ▫Driving a car: 20-25% of chemical energy in fuel is converted to mechanical and electrical energy; rest is lost as heat ▫Energy is lost as go up food chain through heat