1. Population Ecology
Chapter 53

2. Populations
Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to the environment
Includes environmental influences on population density and distribution, age structure, and variations in population size
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same general area

3. Density and Dispersion
Is the number of individuals per unit area or volume.
Dispersion
Is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population.
Population density results from interplay of processes that add individuals and those that remove them from the population.
Immigration and birth add individuals whereas death and emigration remove individuals.

4. Patterns of Dispersion
Environmental and social factors influence the spacing of individuals in a population.
3 Patters:
Clumped
Uniform
random

5. Clumped Dispersion Individuals aggregate in patches
Grouping may be result of the fact that multiple individuals can cooperate effectively
(e.g. wolf pack to attack prey or antelope to avoid predators)
or because of resource dispersion
(e.g. mushrooms clumped on a rotting log)

6. Clumped Dispersion

7. Uniform Dispersion Individuals are evenly distributed
Usually influenced by social interactions such as territoriality

8. Randomly distributed ferns
Random Dispersion
Position of each individual is independent of other individuals
(e.g. plants established by windblown seeds).
Uncommon pattern.
Randomly distributed ferns

9. Demography
Demography is the study of the vital statistics of a population and how they change over time
Death rates and birth rates are of particular interest to demographers

10. Survivorship Curves
A life table is an age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population
Data in a life table can be represented graphically by a survival curve.
Curve usually based on a standardized population of 1000 individuals and the X-axis scale is logarithmic.
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3

11. Survivorship Curves
Survivorship curves can be classified into three general types
Type I, Type II, and Type III I II
III 50
100 1 10
1,000
Percentage of maximum life span
Number of survivors (log scale)
TYPE 1: high survivorship until old age.
TYPE 2: constant proportion of individuals die at each age.
TYPE 3: experience high mortality as larvae but decreased mortality later in life.

12. Type I curve
Type I curve typical of animals that produce few young but care for them well
(e.g. humans, elephants)
Death rate low until late in life where rate increases sharply as a result of old age (wear and tear, accumulation of cellular damage, cancer).

13. Type II curve
Type II curve has fairly steady death rate throughout life (e.g. rodents).
Death is usually a result of chance processes over which the organism has little control (e.g. predation)

14. Type III curve
Type III curve typical of species that produce large numbers of young which receive little or no care (e.g. Oyster).
Survival of young is dependent on luck. Larvae released into sea have only a small chance of settling on a suitable substrate.
Once settled however, prospects of survival are much better and a long life is possible.

15. Life History
Study of life histories focuses on explaining why organisms differ in their reproductive patterns.
Life history traits are products of natural selection.
Life history traits are evolutionary outcomes reflected in the development, physiology, and behavior of an organism.
The current life history reflects the fact that organisms in the past that adopted this strategy left behind on average more surviving offspring than individuals who adopted other strategies.

16. Life History Diversity - Semelparity
Some species exhibit semelparous, or “big-bang” reproduction.
These species reproduce once and die (bamboo, salmon, century plant).
Semelparous reproduction often an adaptation to erratic climatic conditions.
Suitable breeding conditions occur rarely and organisms devote all their resources to reproduction when conditions are good (e.g. century plant).
Also occurs when an organisms’ chances of reproducing again are so low that it is better to commit all resources to a single bout of reproduction (e.g. Salmon).
Century Plant

17. Life History Diversity - Iteroparity
Some species exhibit iteroparous, or repeated reproduction and produce offspring repeatedly over time.
E.g. humans, cats, birds.
Iteroparous reproduction occurs when organisms have good prospects of reproducing in the future (i.e., they are long-lived).
Characteristic of larger organisms and those that experience more stable environmental conditions.

18. Quantity vs. Quality of Offspring
Organisms face tradeoffs between the number and quality of young they can produce because they have only a limited quantity of resources to invest.
The choice is basically between a few large or many small offspring.
Dandelions and coconuts produce dramatically different sized seeds.
Salmon produce hundreds to thousands of eggs whereas albatrosses produce only one egg every 2 years.

19. Quantity vs. Quality of Offspring

20. Quantity vs. Quality of Offspring
The different strategies of investment are strongly influenced by the probability that the young will survive.
Small vulnerable organisms tend to produce many offspring.
Of course, that argument is somewhat circular because babies that receive little investment are more likely to die.

21. Population Growth Occurs when birth rate exceeds death rate (duh!)
Organisms have enormous potential to increase their populations if not constrained by mortality.
Any organism could swamp the planet in a short time if it reproduced without restraint.

22. Per Capita Rate of Increase
If immigration and emigration are ignored, a population’s growth rate (per capita increase) equals the per capita birth rate minus the per capita death rate

23. Population Growth Equation
Equation for population growth is
ΔN/Δt = bN-dN
N = population size
b is per capita birth rate
d is per capita death rate.
ΔN/Δt is change in population N over a small time period t.

24. Per Capita Rate of Population Increase
The per capita rate of population increase is symbolized by r.
r = b-d.
r indicates whether a population is growing (r >0) or declining (r<0).

25. Population Growth
Ecologists express instantaneous population growth using calculus.
Zero population growth occurs when the birth rate equals the death rate r = 0.
The population growth equation can be expressed as dN dt  rN

26. Exponential Population Growth (EPG)
Describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment.
During EPG the rate of reproduction is at its maximum.
The equation for exponential population growth is

27. Exponential Population Growth
Results in a J-shaped curve
Figure 52.9 5 10 15
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
Number of generations
Population size (N) dN dt 
1.0N
0.5N

28. Logistic Population Growth
Exponential growth cannot be sustained for long in any population.
A more realistic population model limits growth by incorporating carrying capacity.
Carrying Capacity (K) is the maximum population size the environment can support.

29. The Logistic Growth Model
In the logistic population growth model the per capita rate of increase declines as carrying capacity is approached.
We construct the logistic model by starting with the exponential model and adding an expression that reduces the per capita rate of increase as N increases

30. Logistic Growth
The logistic growth equation includes K, the carrying capacity (number of organisms environment can support):
As population size (N) increases, the equation ((K-N)/K)
becomes smaller which slows the population’s growth
rate.

31. Logistic model produces a sigmoid (S-shaped) population
growth curve.

32. Phases of Growth Curve 3 2 1

33. Logistic Growth & Density
Logistic model predicts different per capita growth rates for populations at low and high density.
At low density population growth rate driven primarily by r the rate at which offspring can be produced. At low density population grows rapidly.
At high population density population growth is much slower as density effects exert their effect.

34. The Logistic Model and Real Populations
Figure 52.13a
800
600
400
200
Time (days) 5 10 15
(a) A Paramecium population in the lab. The growth of Paramecium aurelia in small cultures (black dots) closely approximates logistic growth (red curve) if the experimenter maintains a constant environment.
1,000
Number of Paramecium/ml
The growth of laboratory populations of paramecia fits an S-shaped curve

35. Some populations overshoot K before settling down to a relatively stable density
Figure 52.13b
180
150
120 90 60 30
Time (days)
160
140 80
100 40 20
Number of Daphnia/50 ml
(b) A Daphnia population in the lab. The growth of a population of Daphnia in a small laboratory culture (black dots) does not correspond well to the logistic model (red curve). This population overshoots the carrying capacity of its artificial environment and then settles down to an approximately stable population size.

36. Some populations fluctuate greatly around K.
Figure 52.13c 80 60 40 20
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Time (years)
Number of females
(c) A song sparrow population in its natural habitat. The population of female song sparrows nesting on Mandarte Island, British Columbia, is periodically reduced by severe winter weather, and population growth is not well described by the logistic model.

37. The Logistic Model and Life Histories
Life history traits favored by natural selection may vary with population density and environmental conditions.
At low density, per capita food supply is relatively high. Selection for reproducing quickly (e.g by producing many small young) should be favored.
At high density selection will favor adaptations that allow organisms to survive and reproduce with few resources. Expect lower birth rates.

38. K vs. R Reproduction Strategies
K-selection, or density-dependent selection
Selects for life history traits that are sensitive to population density.
Produce relative FEW offspring that have a GOOD chance of survival.
r-selection, or density-independent selection
Selects for life history traits that maximize reproduction.
High reproductive rate is the chief determinant of life history.
The concepts of K-selection and r-selection have been criticized by ecologists as oversimplifications.
Most organisms exhibit intermediate traits or can adjust their behavior to different conditions.

39. K vs. R Reproduction Strategies
Research has shown that selection can produce populations who display appropriate r and K traits.
Drosophila bred for 200 generations under high density conditions with little food are more productive under these conditions than Drosophila from low-density environments.
Selection has produced Drosophila that perform better under crowded conditions (e.g. larvae from high-density populations eat more quickly than larvae from low density populations)

40. Limits to Growth
Limiting Factors- any factor that causes population growth to decrease

41. Density & Growth Regulation
Density Dependent factors – include disease, competition, parasites and food. These have an increasing effect as the population increases.
Density Independent factors – affect all populations regardless of their density (numbers) Most are abiotic factors such as temperature, storms, floods, droughts and habitat destruction.

42. Population Regulation
Populations are regulated by a complex interaction of biotic and abiotic influences:
In density-independent populations birth rate and death rate do not change with population density.
For example, in dune fescue grass environmental conditions kill a similar proportion of individuals regardless of density.
In contrast in density-dependent populations birth rates fall and death rates rise with population density.
Density-dependent population regulation much more common than density- independent

43. Density-Dependent Limiting Factor
Growth of Aphids

44. Predation Can Affect Population Sizes
In general the size of the predator population is influenced by the size of the prey
if more food is available the prey population will grow, as the prey population decreases the predator population decrease
See chart next slide

45. Predation Can Affect Population Sizes

46. The Effects of Competition on Populations
Organisms in a population constantly compete for resources. When numbers are low, resources are plentiful, but when overcrowding occurs populations compete.
Competition is density dependent, overcrowding can lead to increased aggression, decreased fertility, decrease in parental care, and decrease in ability to fight disease.

47. Interspecific vs. Intraspecific Competition
Interspecific is between organisms of different species but in same habitat
Intraspecific is between organisms of same species in same population in same habitat

48. Demography Study of human population growth characteristics
Looks at growth rate, age structure, geographic distribution
Can tell if population is growing by looking at the difference between the birth rate and the death rate
In US, death rate is declining, life expectancy is increasing, fertility rate is decreasing

49. Human Population Growth
In US, death rate is declining, life expectancy is increasing, and fertility rate is decreasing.
The human population rate increased slowly until about 1650, then began to grow exponentially. Some argue that we have exceeded our carrying capacity.
Approximately 33% of the human population died as a result of the plague around 1300.
The global human population has grown almost continuously throughout history, but it skyrocketed after the Industrial Revolution.
The rate has slowed in recent decades, mainly as a result of decreased birth rates throughout the world.

50. Age Structure Diagrams
Age structure diagram- a population profile, graphs the numbers of people in different age groups in the population