1. Jan Roscoe Publications WJEC Examinations GCE Physical Education AS / A Year 1 (A1) PHYSICAL EDUCATION 3. Sport psychology Stress, arousal and anxiety

2. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 2 3. Sport psychologyINDEX 33STRESS AND STRESSORS 3 44STRESSORS 4 55PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS 5 66EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE 6 77SYMPTOMS OF STRESS 7 88AROUSAL 8 1010ANXIETY 10 1212AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY 12 1414INVERTED U THEORY 14 1616AROUSAL CURVES 16 1717CATASTROPHE THEORY 17 1818TASK DIFFERENCES 18 2020ZONE OF OPTIMUM FUNCTIONING (ZOF) 20 2222PEAK FLOW THEORY 22 2424CHOKING AND OVERAROUSAL 24 2626THE EFFECT OF AUDIENCE 26 2727MEASUREMENT OF ANXIETY 27 3030THE MANAGEMENT OF STRESS 30 3131COGNITIVE RELAXATION TECHNIQUES 31 3333COGNITIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT 33 3434CONCENTRATION 34 3535STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 35 3636PROGRESSIVE MUSCLE RELAXATION – PMR 36 3737SOMATIC RELAXATION TECHNIQUES 37 3838MENTAL PRACTICE / REHEARSAL 38 3939MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCE 39 4040MENTAL PRACTICE 40 4141STRESS CONTROL TECHNIQUES 41 4242MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCE 42

3. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 3 3. Sport psychology STRESS AND STRESSORS STRESS a response of the body to any demands made on it a response of the body to any demands made on it symptoms of stress symptoms of stress –physiological –psychological –behavioural

4. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 4 3. Sport psychologySTRESSORS STRESSORSsocial disapproval of parents / peers disapproval of parents / peers rejection by peers / parents rejection by peers / parents isolation from normal social interactions isolation from normal social interactions chemical / biochemical harm by ingestion of substances harm by ingestion of substancesbacterial illness caused by micro-organisms illness caused by micro-organismsphysical injury / pain / exhaustion injury / pain / exhaustionclimatic extremes of weather extremes of weather hot weather for endurance activities hot weather for endurance activities rain and cold on bare skin rain and cold on bare skinpsychological mismatch between perception of demands of task mismatch between perception of demands of task and ability to cope and ability to cope

5. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 5 3. Sport psychology PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EXTERNAL - THE SITUATION perception of the demands of the situation perception of the demands of the situation example : I’ve got to run a PB to win example : I’ve got to run a PB to winINTERNAL perception of the performer’s ability to cope perception of the performer’s ability to cope example : I got a terribly slow start last time example : I got a terribly slow start last time COMPETITIVE ORIENTATION perception of the importance of the situation perception of the importance of the situation example : there’s a gold medal hanging on this example : there’s a gold medal hanging on this

6. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 6 3. Sport psychology EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE INHIBITION inhibition of performance inhibition of performance PERFORMANCE OF SKILLS stress may act directly on the information processing of skill stress may act directly on the information processing of skill motor elements of skill are performed less well motor elements of skill are performed less well muscles tense muscles tense muscular control is reduced muscular control is reducedCONCENTRATION concentration is difficult concentration is difficult span of attention is narrowed span of attention is narrowedSTRESS awareness of being under stress itself acts as a stressor awareness of being under stress itself acts as a stressor

7. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 7 3. Sport psychology SYMPTOMS OF STRESS PHYSIOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS increased heart rate increased heart rate increased blood pressure increased blood pressure increased sweating increased sweating increased breathing rate increased breathing rate decreased flow of blood to the skin decreased flow of blood to the skin increased oxygen uptake increased oxygen uptake dry mouth dry mouth PSYCHLOGICAL SYMPTOMS worry worry feeling overwhelmed feeling overwhelmed inability to make decisions inability to make decisions inability to concentrate inability to concentrate inability to direct attention appropriately inability to direct attention appropriately narrowing of attention narrowing of attention feeling out of control feeling out of control BEHAVIOURAL SYMPTOMS rapid talking rapid talking nail biting nail biting pacing pacing scowling scowling yawning yawning trembling trembling raised voice pitch raised voice pitch frequent urination frequent urination

8. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 8 3. Sport psychologyAROUSAL AROUSAL a state of mental and physical preparedness for action a state of mental and physical preparedness for action this is the level of inner drives this is the level of inner drives which forces the sportsperson to strive to achieve which forces the sportsperson to strive to achieve achievement motivation achievement motivation

9. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 9 3. Sport psychologyAROUSAL RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM RAS is a system within the brain which causes arousal RAS is a system within the brain which causes arousal extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal introverts seek low arousal situations introverts seek low arousal situations AROUSAL needs to be under control needs to be under control and at the right level depending on the task and at the right level depending on the task a faster heart rate a faster heart rate faster breathing rate faster breathing rate sweating sweating ability to focus (concentrate) ability to focus (concentrate) response to danger response to danger

10. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 10 3. Sport psychologyANXIETY ANXIETY an emotional state an emotional state similar to fear similar to fear associated with associated with –physiological (somatic) arousal –psychological (cognitive) arousal –feelings of nervousness –feelings of apprehension

11. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 11 3. Sport psychologyANXIETY TRAIT ANXIETY - A TRAIT (Speilberger) an inbuilt (trait) part of the personality an inbuilt (trait) part of the personality a tendency to be fearful of unfamiliar situations a tendency to be fearful of unfamiliar situations a tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening a tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening a tendency to respond to competitive situations with apprehension and tension a tendency to respond to competitive situations with apprehension and tension STATE ANXIETY - A STATE an emotional response to a particular situation an emotional response to a particular situation characterised by feelings of nervousness and apprehension characterised by feelings of nervousness and apprehension often temporary often temporary

12. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 12 3. Sport psychology AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY DRIVE THEORY (HULL) the higher the arousal level the higher the arousal level the higher the achievement or performance level the higher the achievement or performance level the more likely that a well-learned skill (a dominant response) will be produced the more likely that a well-learned skill (a dominant response) will be produced

13. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 13 3. Sport psychology AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY WITH INCREASED AROUSAL the dominant habit or most usual behaviour will be reproduced the dominant habit or most usual behaviour will be reproduced a poorly-learned skill will give a performance full of mistakes a poorly-learned skill will give a performance full of mistakes a well-learned skill will give a skilled performance a well-learned skill will give a skilled performance

14. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 14 3. Sport psychology INVERTED U THEORY (YERKES and DODSON) there is an optimum arousal level there is an optimum arousal level if aroused more than this if aroused more than this performance will decline performance will decline

15. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 15 3. Sport psychology INVERTED U THEORY type of activity and task complexity gross skills (weight lifting) require high arousal gross skills (weight lifting) require high arousal fine skills (snooker) require low arousal fine skills (snooker) require low arousal skill level of the performer the more skilful the performer the more skilful the performer the higher the optimum arousal could be the higher the optimum arousal could be personality of the performer the more extrovert the performer the more extrovert the performer the higher the arousal likely for optimum performance the higher the arousal likely for optimum performance whereas introverts would optimise performance at lower arousal levels whereas introverts would optimise performance at lower arousal levels THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM AROUSAL DEPENDS ON:

16. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 16 3. Sport psychology AROUSAL CURVES BEST PERFORMANCE Sam’s performance has the highest level Sam’s performance has the highest level PSYCHING UP Jon’s best performance takes place at the highest arousal level Jon’s best performance takes place at the highest arousal level he needs to psych himself up the most to achieve optimum performance he needs to psych himself up the most to achieve optimum performance CONTROLLED AROUSAL Ted’s best performance takes place between a narrow range of arousal levels Ted’s best performance takes place between a narrow range of arousal levels therefore arousal needs to be carefully controlled therefore arousal needs to be carefully controlled

17. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 17 3. Sport psychology CATASTROPHE THEORY (FAZEY and HARDY) here performance increases as arousal increases here performance increases as arousal increases but if arousal gets too high but if arousal gets too high a complete loss of performance occurs a complete loss of performance occurs example: the golfer who tries too hard and completely misses the fairway from his drive at the 18th hole when in a winning position example: the golfer who tries too hard and completely misses the fairway from his drive at the 18th hole when in a winning position example: the gymnast who completely messes up her previously well-executed routine in a national final example: the gymnast who completely messes up her previously well-executed routine in a national final anxiety affects arousal anxiety affects arousal

18. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 18 3. Sport psychology TASK DIFFERENCES OPTIMUM AROUSAL can be identified can be identified can be controlled by successful performers can be controlled by successful performers depends on: depends on: –circumstances –personality of performer –ability of performer also whether tasks are: also whether tasks are: –simple or complex –fine or gross –strength or endurance –information processing

19. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 19 3. Sport psychology TASK DIFFERENCES COMPLEX or SKILFULLY DIFFICULT TASKS fine, delicate and highly controlled fine, delicate and highly controlled or information processing tasks or information processing tasks high arousal interferes with task high arousal interferes with task sometimes very low arousal is required (calmness) sometimes very low arousal is required (calmness) close control required close control required narrow band of arousal best narrow band of arousal best SIMPLE or GROSS TASKS easy or large basic movements or strength or endurance tasks easy or large basic movements or strength or endurance tasks bigger margin for error bigger margin for error broader optimal arousal zone broader optimal arousal zone tolerate bigger arousal levels before performance falls tolerate bigger arousal levels before performance falls

20. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 20 3. Sport psychology ZONE OF OPTIMUM FUNCTIONING (ZOF) HANIN optimum level of arousal is not always at mid point of the inverted U optimum level of arousal is not always at mid point of the inverted U best performance will vary between sportspeople best performance will vary between sportspeople some athletes will peak at low arousal some athletes will peak at low arousal other athletes will peak at medium arousal other athletes will peak at medium arousal further athletes will peak at high arousal for the same task further athletes will peak at high arousal for the same task

21. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 21 3. Sport psychology ZONE OF OPTIMUM FUNCTIONING (ZOF) THE ZONE an athlete’s best performance will be in a zone (not just a point of optimum performance) an athlete’s best performance will be in a zone (not just a point of optimum performance) optimum performances depend on personality, skill / task, degree of habit optimum performances depend on personality, skill / task, degree of habit habit = strength and permanence of a correctly learned skill habit = strength and permanence of a correctly learned skill different athletes will respond differently to the same arousal situations different athletes will respond differently to the same arousal situations they will have different zones of arousal they will have different zones of arousal

22. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 22 3. Sport psychology when the performer feels totally involved when the performer feels totally involved without effort without effort without having to concentrate without having to concentrate if skill level exceeds task demands (task is too easy) if skill level exceeds task demands (task is too easy) performer is bored performer is bored if task demands exceed skill level (task is too hard) if task demands exceed skill level (task is too hard) performer becomes anxious performer becomes anxious PEAK FLOW THEORY CSIKZENTMIHALYI flow is an optimal experience flow is an optimal experience which is intrinsically rewarding which is intrinsically rewarding flow is a period of peak performance flow is a period of peak performance

23. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 23 3. Sport psychology PEAK FLOW THEORY PEAK FLOW OCCURS WHEN : task demands match skill level of performer task demands match skill level of performer actions of performer become automatic actions of performer become automatic concentration is total without effort concentration is total without effort performer feels in control without effort performer feels in control without effort performer loses self-consciousness performer loses self-consciousness time appears to speed up time appears to speed up or time appears to slow down or time appears to slow down performer feels exhilarated by activity performer feels exhilarated by activity PEAK FLOW IS ACHIEVED WHEN : performer has positive mental attitude performer has positive mental attitude performer controls anxiety performer controls anxiety performer maintains concentration and confidence (maintains focus) performer maintains concentration and confidence (maintains focus) peak fitness is maintained peak fitness is maintained

24. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 24 3. Sport psychology CHOKING AND OVERAROUSAL CHOKING high arousal can cause a performer to have negative thoughts high arousal can cause a performer to have negative thoughts negative thoughts of failure or lack of success can creep in if a performer is over-aroused negative thoughts of failure or lack of success can creep in if a performer is over-aroused these thoughts can affect the performer’s confidence and create an almost complete inability to perform skills properly these thoughts can affect the performer’s confidence and create an almost complete inability to perform skills properly this is choking and is an aspect of inverted U theory this is choking and is an aspect of inverted U theory

25. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 25 3. Sport psychology CHOKING AND OVERAROUSAL CHOKING examples are: examples are: –the snooker player who misses an easy shot when in the final frame of an important match –the golfer who misses the fairway from the tee when in the lead in a competition –this particularly applies to sports which use a fine skill choking can be controlled by cognitive management techniques (see slides below) choking can be controlled by cognitive management techniques (see slides below) anxiety affects arousal, and these theories can also apply to how anxiety affects performance anxiety affects arousal, and these theories can also apply to how anxiety affects performance

26. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 26 3. Sport psychology THE EFFECT OF AUDIENCE AROUSAL CAUSED BY AUDIENCE EVALUATION (development of a correct dominant response) audience evaluation causes arousal audience evaluation causes arousal if a skill is poorly learnt (early in the learning curve) if a skill is poorly learnt (early in the learning curve) then arousal causes incorrect response then arousal causes incorrect response because incorrect response is dominant because incorrect response is dominant if a skill is well-learnt (later in the learning curve) if a skill is well-learnt (later in the learning curve) then arousal causes correct response then arousal causes correct response because the correct response is dominant because the correct response is dominant look at inverted U theory for connection between arousal and performance look at inverted U theory for connection between arousal and performance

27. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 27 3. Sport psychology MEASUREMENT OF ANXIETY There are 3 different METHODS of measurement : OBSERVATIONSQUESTIONNAIRES PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES OBSERVATIONS have the following advantages and disadvantages : made during an actual event made during an actual event directly related to performance directly related to performance but difficult to quantify accurately but difficult to quantify accurately varies according to the competitive nature of the event varies according to the competitive nature of the event may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes

28. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 28 3. Sport psychology MEASUREMENT OF ANXIETY QUESTIONNAIRES have the following disadvantages and advantages : before or after the event before or after the event not directly related to performance not directly related to performance rigidly and systematically set out rigidly and systematically set out transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed but would be able to quantify accurately but would be able to quantify accurately would not be influenced by another would not be influenced by another can be used to assess specific traits can be used to assess specific traits COMMONLY USED QUESTIONNAIRES are : Martens’ Sport Competitive Anxiety Test (SCAT) Martens’ Sport Competitive Anxiety Test (SCAT) Martens’ Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI) Martens’ Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI) Speilberger’s State, Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) Speilberger’s State, Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) Smith’s Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS) Smith’s Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS) reference : Webster, AS/A2 Sport Psychology Guide, 978 1 901424 46 1, JRP

29. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 29 3. Sport psychology MEASUREMENT OF ANXIETY PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES have the following disadvantages and advantages : can be made during, before or after the event can be made during, before or after the event directly related to performance directly related to performance systematically and scientifically recorded systematically and scientifically recorded and would be able to quantify accurately and would be able to quantify accurately can be used to assess stress or anxiety can be used to assess stress or anxiety PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES are : heart rate monitoring heart rate monitoring skin conductivity devices (measure sweating) skin conductivity devices (measure sweating) disadvantages are that such devices are affected by the exercise intensity being undertaken disadvantages are that such devices are affected by the exercise intensity being undertaken

30. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 30 3. Sport psychology THE MANAGEMENT OF STRESS

31. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 31 3. Sport psychology COGNITIVE RELAXATION TECHNIQUES IMAGERY RELAXATION think of a place with associations of warmth and relaxation think of a place with associations of warmth and relaxation imagine the activity or technique imagine the activity or technique practise in non-stressful situations practise in non-stressful situations use prior to competition use prior to competition Helen Roscoe Photography

32. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 32 3. Sport psychology COGNITIVE RELAXATION TECHNIQUES THOUGHT STOPPING when negative thoughts or worry (about failure) begin when negative thoughts or worry (about failure) begin performer should immediately think ‘STOP’ performer should immediately think ‘STOP’ and substitute a positive thought and substitute a positive thought Helen Roscoe Photography

33. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 33 3. Sport psychology COGNITIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT SELF-TALK talking through the process of a competitive situation talking through the process of a competitive situation talking positively, building self-confidence talking positively, building self-confidence COGNITIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT control of emotions and thought processes control of emotions and thought processes linked to attributions linked to attributions eliminate negative feelings eliminate negative feelings develop self-confidence develop self-confidence

34. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 34 3. Sport psychologyCONCENTRATION USE OF COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES TO ASSIST CONCENTRATION imagery imagery mental rehearsal mental rehearsal relaxation relaxation can be used to direct the sportsperson’s mind towards a specific task can be used to direct the sportsperson’s mind towards a specific task Helen Roscoe Photography these techniques can be thought to manage the stress of the situation these techniques can be thought to manage the stress of the situation to manage anxiety in a productive way to manage anxiety in a productive way

35. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 35 3. Sport psychology SELF-DIRECTED RELAXATION TRAINING PROGRESSIVE MUSCLE RELAXATION (PMR) focus on each of the major muscle groups in turn focus on each of the major muscle groups in turn allow breathing to become slow and easy allow breathing to become slow and easy visualise the tension flowing out of a muscle group visualise the tension flowing out of a muscle group until completely relaxed until completely relaxed eventually combine muscle groups eventually combine muscle groups and achieve total relaxation quickly and achieve total relaxation quickly STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Helen Roscoe Photography

36. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 36 3. Sport psychology PROGRESSIVE MUSCLE RELAXATION - PMR FURTHER NOTES references to this (correct definition) of PMR: references to this (correct definition) of PMR: – –first developed and explained by Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s Edmund Jacobson – –he argued that since muscle tension accompanies anxiety, one can reduce anxiety by learning how to relax the muscular tension – –PMR entails a physical and mental component (wikipedia 2010) – –Brian Miller (‘Gold Minds’ 9781861261007 p140) uses this term to describe the progressive muscle relaxation technique – –used to reduce somatic tension (and hence anxiety) prior to major competitive effort of athletes – –Google search reveals PMR as a technique used to reduce tension in working, sporting or personal situations

37. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 37 3. Sport psychology SOMATIC RELAXATION TECHNIQUES CENTRING control of physiological symptoms of stress by focusing on control of the diaphragm and deep breathing control of physiological symptoms of stress by focusing on control of the diaphragm and deep breathing Wikimedia commons/Nrbelex John McEnroe was able to use this technique to restabilise his focus and concentration within 3 seconds of: “you can’t be serious”

38. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 38 3. Sport psychology MENTAL PRACTICE / REHEARSAL MENTAL PRACTICE the mental or cognitive rehearsal of a skill without actual physical movement the mental or cognitive rehearsal of a skill without actual physical movement used by most top level sportsmen to visualise a skill or movement used by most top level sportsmen to visualise a skill or movement often prompted by tape / film or talk from a coach often prompted by tape / film or talk from a coach HOW IS IT USED? used to review good practice and compare with poor practice (failure) used to review good practice and compare with poor practice (failure) used to rehearse the ‘feel’ of a skill before action used to rehearse the ‘feel’ of a skill before action used in dangerous situations to avoid risk used in dangerous situations to avoid risk used to focus and direct attention used to focus and direct attention

39. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 39 3. Sport psychology MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCE MENTAL REHEARSAL consciously imagine a performance consciously imagine a performance rerun a past experience rerun a past experience preview hoped-for success preview hoped-for success helps concentration helps concentration helps focus on strengths and weaknesses helps focus on strengths and weaknesses positive effect on skill learning positive effect on skill learning but not as good as actual practice but not as good as actual practice

40. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 40 3. Sport psychology MENTAL PRACTICE

41. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 41 3. Sport psychology STRESS CONTROL TECHNIQUES BIOFEEDBACK monitor skin temperature monitor skin temperature –cold if stressed –warm if unstressed galvanic skin response galvanic skin response –electrical conductivity of skin increases when moist –tense muscle cause sweating electromygraphy electromygraphy –electrodes taped to specific muscles –can detect electrical activity –hence tension in muscle

42. indexpreviousnext WJEC AS / A1 Level Physical Education stress, arousal, anxiety 42 3. Sport psychology MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCE GOAL SETTING success is more likely because: success is more likely because: –learning is focused –uncertainty is reduced –confidence is increased –practice is planned and structured –evaluation and feedback are specific