1. AP Psychology Unit IX: Developmental Psychology Research Focus Fetal & Newborn Development Infancy & Childhood Development Adolescence Development Adulthood

2. Developmental Psychology Study of humans from womb to tomb.

3. 3 Developmental Psychology IssueDetails Nature/Nurture How do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience (the nurture we receive) influence our behavior? Stability/Change Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age. Continuity/Stages Is developmental a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages?

4. Continuity vs. Stages Continuity Stages

5. 5 Application of Research Methods Cross-Sectional Study Study people of different ages at the same point in time Advantages –Inexpensive –Can be completed quickly –Low attrition Disadvantages –Different age groups are not necessarily much alike –Differences may be due to cohort differences rather than age

6. 6 Application of Research Methods Longitudinal Study Study the same group of people over time Advantages –Detailed information about subjects –Developmental changes can be studied in detail –Eliminates cohort differences Disadvantages –Expensive and time consuming –Potential for high attrition –Differences over time may be due to assessment tools and not age

7. Outline

8. Application of Research Methods Biographical or Retrospective Study Participant’s past is reconstructed through interviews and other research about their life Advantages –Great detail about life of individual –In-depth study of one person Disadvantages –Recall of individual may not be accurate –Can be expensive and time consuming

9. Fetal & Newborn Development Gestation Period – time which fetus develops to birth Zygote: fertilized egg Embryo: 2 weeks to 2 months; organs begin to form and function Fetus: 9 weeks after conception, developing human organism, responds to sound. Factors that influence fetal development –teratogens –Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

10. Prenatal Development and the Newborn How, over time, did we come to be who we are? From zygote to birth, development progresses in an orderly, though fragile, sequence.

11. Conception A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuses to form one fertilized cell. Your most fortunate of moments! Out of the 200 million sperm and 5000 eggs ‘you’ won the race.

12. Outline

13. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome –Occurs in children of women who consume large amounts of alcohol during pregnancy –Symptoms include facial deformities, heart defects, stunted growth, and cognitive impairments

14. Newborn Babies born with innate reflexes, goes against tabula rasa Rooting Reflex –Baby turns its head toward something that brushes its cheek and gropes around with mouth Sucking Reflex –Newborn’s tendency to suck on objects placed in the mouth Swallowing Reflex –Enables newborn babies to swallow liquids without choking Grasping Reflex –Close fist around anything placed in their hand

15. Newborn Babinski Reflex –Stroke bottom of newborns’ foot, toes fan out and curl back in Stepping Reflex –Stepping motions made by an infant when held upright Moro Reflex –After loud noise, baby’s arms and legs fan out and then pulls the back into the body Habituation –Decrease responsiveness with repeated stimulation Newborn Senses –Mimick Facial Expressions –Visual Cliff Aparatus Reflexes Clip (2:00_

17. Newborn: Perceptual Abilities Investigators study infants becoming habituated to objects over a period of time. Infants pay more attention to new objects than habituated ones, which shows they are learning

18. Infancy: Developing Brain The developing brain overproduces neurons. Peaking around 28 billion at 7 months, these neurons are pruned to 23 billion at birth. The greatest neuronal spurt is in the frontal lobe enabling the individual to think rationally.

19. Infancy: Physical Development Children grow about 10 inches and gain about 15 pounds in first year Growth occurs in spurts, as much as 1 inch overnight Growth slows during second year

20. Infancy: Motor Development Developmental Norms –Ages by which an average child achieves various developmental milestones –First, infants begin to roll over. Next, they sit unsupported, crawl, and finally walk. –Experience has little effect on this sequence.

21. Infancy: Motor Development Muscle & neural maturation help babies control bowel movements but not before then. Infantile amnesia – earliest memories rarely predate 3 years old.

22. Infancy: Cognitive Development Piaget believed that the driving force behind cognitive development is our biological development (maturation) As we get older we enter into new cognitive stages.

23. Infancy: Cognitive Development Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Stages change how we view children Maturing brains build schemas (mental molds) Piaget believes a child assimilates a new experience and accommodates by creating a new schema, horse. –Star Wars 1:30 Clip

24. Complex Classification Mental Reps

25. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 yrs) In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. They are learning to sense They are learning to move

26. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 yrs) THE major cognitive ability gained at this stage is object permanence –This is where objects which are out of sight still exist Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence

27. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 yrs) Also develops stranger anxiety or separation anxiety, which is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months. At this point infants also form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face. © Christina Kennedy/ PhotoEdit

28. Separation Anxiety Separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age, regardless of whether the children are home or sent to day care.

29. Preoperational Stage (2 to 6/7 yrs) Child begins to use language and represent things with words and images. Children will also do pretend play because they can think symbolically.

30. Preoperational Stage (2 to 6/7 yrs) Development of Mental Representations DeLoache (1987) showed that children as young as 3 years of age are able to use metal operations. When shown a model of a dog’s hiding place behind the couch, a 2½-year-old could not locate the stuffed dog in an actual room, but the 3-year-old did. Hence language development and pretend play

31. Preoperational Stage (2 to 6/7 yrs) Tend to give inanimate objects feelings, animism. Egocentricism- children are egocentric; they have difficultly taking the perspective of others. 1:30 Clip Theory of mind forms; new cognitive ability of children to understand other people’s thoughts and motives, which may differ from their own. Involves empathy

32. Concrete Operational (6/7 to 11yrs) Use logical thought and operations Accomplishes mastery of conservation, the idea that something does not change with its appearance. 2 Conservation Clips Mathematical transformations- able to compute reversible math equations easily “Cut it up into a LOT of slices Mom, I’m really hungry!!”

33. Formal Operational (12 to Adult) Able to think abstractly and hypothetically so they can consider future possibilities. Example of the distinction between concrete and formal operational – height example Third Eye Test If you had a third eye where would you put it and why?

34. Reflections/Criticism on Piaget 1.Age accuracy of Piaget’s stages; better to concentrate on sequence 2.Not factor in environmental factors 3.Research methods may not be sound 4.Enormous impact on education and developmental psychology

35. Infancy: Cognitive Development (Extended beyond Piaget) Lev Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Differs from Piaget, believes child development is less biological and more social interaction. Idea of inner speech Zone of Proximal Development –Difference between can do and potential to

36. Examples of Guided Participation A 6-year old lost a toy & asks her father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the toy; the child says, “I can’t remember.” He asks a series of questions – “Did you have it in your room? Outside?” To each question the child answers “No”. When he asks, “In the car?”, she says “I think so” and finds the toy in the car. –In this story, who found the toy?

37. Examples of Guided Participation Think back to your days of driver’s ed. and driving around with your parents and your temporary driver’s license. –In what ways did your parent or driving instructor provide guided participation for you?

38. Vygotsky’s Words… “It is through others that we become ourselves” –All learning is social “What a child can do in co-operation today he can do alone tomorrow” –Guided participation, ZPD, scaffolding

39. Infancy: Social Development Attachment – emotional tie with another; usually shown by children to their caregiver –Involves separation anxiety & stranger anxiety Harlow Experiment –Tested if preference of monkeys between nourished mothers made of wire or non-nourishing mother of cloth. What do you think were the results? –Harlow Video (4 min; play at 1:15)

40. Infancy: Social Development Imprinting– rigid attachment process; researched by Konrad Lorenzo –Must take place during critical period Temperament - refers to characteristic patterns of emotional reactions and emotional self-regulation. Thomas and Chess identified three basic types of babies –Easy –Difficult –Slow-to-warm-up –Shy child (added by Kagan) Temperament may predict later disposition

42. Infancy: Social Development Attachment Differences– research supports sensitive parents have securely attached children –Is attachment style of a child influenced by temperament or by parenting? How does one perform this experiment? –Erik Erikson (and wife Joan) stated that securely attached children approach life with a sense of basic trust

43. Infancy: Social Development Prolonged Deprivation If parental or caregiving support is deprived for an extended period of time, children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems, including alterations in brain serotonin levels.

44. Infancy: Social Development Attachment Styles –Mary Ainsworth measured level of security/insecurity in the bond between child and mother –She noticed the following attachment styles: Secure Avoidant Resistant/Ambivalent Disorganized

45. Infancy: Social Development Parenting Styles –Google “Proprofs Identifying Your Parents Parenting Style” and answer the 6 questions about your parents. –Diana Baumrind described a set of parenting styles that would impact a child’s social development Authoritarian Authoritative Permissive Uninvolved or Neglectful

46. Parenting Styles PracticeDescription Authoritarian Parents impose rules and expect obedience. Permissive Parents submit to children’s demands. Authoritative Parents are demanding but responsive to their children.

49. Authoritative Parenting Authoritative parenting correlates with social competence — other factors like common genes may lead to an easy-going temperament and may invoke an authoritative parenting style.

50. Adolescence Development Define Adolescence When does it begin & When does it end? Adolescence – transitional period between childhood and adulthood Begins during puberty and ends during social achievement of independency

51. Adolescence: Physical Development Puberty – time of maturing sexually –Primary Sex Characteristics –Secondary Sex Characteristics –Menarche – first menstruation cycle

52. The Heinz Dilemma A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's laboratory to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?

53. Adolescence: Cognitive Development Lawrence Kohlberg – researched moral thinking; developed three levels of moral reason with “the Heinz Dilemma.”

54. Adolescence: Cognitive Development Kohlberg’s Three levels of moral reason: –Preconventional Level children; focus on reward and punishment Responses are self interested –Conventional Level Early adolescence; focus on social conventions Care for others and desire to uphold the laws and social rules –Postconventional Level Later adolescence if reached at all Moral decisions based on internal & personal judgements of right and wrong.

56. Summary of Kohlberg’s Six Stage Theory of Morality Development: 1: Punishment and Obedience Moral reasoning based on immediate consequences for the individual. 2: Market Exchange Moral reasoning based on reciprocity. An act is moral if a similar act occurs in return. 3: Interpersonal Harmony Moral reasoning based on concern for others or the opinions of others. 4: Law and Order Moral reasoning based on rules, laws, and an orderly society. 5: Social Contract Moral reasoning based on principled agreements among people. 6: Universal Principles Moral reasoning based on abstract principles.

57. Morality Development: Kohlberg Level I: Pre-conventional: Egocentric orientation focusing on moral consequences for the self; reasoning found until about 10 years of age StageDescription 1: Punishment - Obedience 2: Individualism and Exchange Moral reasoning based on reciprocity. An act is moral if a similar act occurs in return (i.e. satisfies own needs) Moral reasoning based on immediate consequences for the individual. An act is moral if a person isn’t punished for it. It is immoral if the person is punished.

58. Morality Development: Kohlberg Level II: Conventional: Moral reasoning linked to perspectives of, and concerns for, others (i.e. loyalty, obeying the law, family obligation); typical of 10 to 20 yr olds. StageDescription 3: Good boy-nice girl 4: Law and Order Moral reasoning based on rules, laws, and orderly society. An act is moral if it follows rules or promotes an orderly society. Moral reasoning based on concern for others or the opinions of others. An act is moral if others demonstrate similar acts, or it helps others (i.e. behavior likely to please others)

59. Morality Development: Kohlberg Level III: Post-conventional. Reasoning transcends society’s rules; reflects an understanding that rules sometimes need to be changed/ignored. StageDescription 5: Social Contract 6: Universal Ethical Moral reasoning based on abstract principles. An act is moral if it is consistent with an abstract principle that transcends an individual’s society. Moral reasoning based on principled agreements among people. An act is moral if it is consistent with a principled agreement. (ex: Bill of Rights)

60. Morality Example #1 Your bank has made an error and credited an extra $200 to your account. They thank you when you call to inform them, but in your next bank statement, they’ve not fixed the mistake, and you still have the extra $200. What do you do, and why? According to Kohlberg, how would each stage respond to the example above? –Preconventional? –Conventional? –Postconventional?

61. Morality Example #2 You are having dinner in a hotel restaurant, and you see the father of a good friend of yours passionately kissing another woman. If you tell your firend, she might hate you for it, and the news will surely hurt her deeply. If you don’t tell, you fear your’re “in on it” with her cheating father. What do you do, and why? According to Kohlberg, how would each stage respond to the example above? –Preconventional? –Conventional? –Postconventional?

62. Morality Example #3 A student observes his most HATED teacher drop a copy of tomorrow’s test in the hallway after school, when no one else is in the corridor. The student grabs the test, figures out and memorizes the answers, and then offers you access to them. What do you do, and why? According to Kohlberg, how would each stage respond to the example above? –Preconventional? –Conventional? –Postconventional?

63. Adolescence: Cognitive Development Are there gender differences? Do men and women approach moral dilemmas differently? Carol Gilligan – Kohlberg critic bc of generalization of his theory to all people when only tested men Stated women view moral dilemmas differently

64. Adolescence: Cognitive Development Gilligan’s Three levels of moral reason: –Preconventional Level Care is egocentric –Conventional Level Care results from internalized focus on others, while neglecting oneself –Postconventional Level Care results from internalized focus on others, while ALSO focusing oneself

66. Adolescence: Social Development Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

67. Adolescence (& Childhood): Social Development Gender Identity & Roles Sex - biologically determined Gender - socially constructed notion of what is feminine and what is masculine

70. Adolescence (& Childhood): Social Development Gender roles - A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

71. Adolescence (& Childhood): Social Development Other Gender Terms Gender Consistency – the realization (usually 4 or 5 and based upon genitalia) that gender does not change with age. Gender Identity – one’s sense of being male or female Gender schemas – mental constructs or generalizations about which toys, activities, and jobs are most associated with males and females; decided by society Androgyny – presence of both male and female behaviors or characteristics in the same person.

72. Sex or Gender Differences? Compared to the average man the average woman has 70% more fat, possesses 40% less muscle and is 5 inches shorter Women enter puberty 2 yrs sooner Women are doubly vulnerable to depression and anxiety Women are 10 times greater risk for eating disorders Men are four times likely to be diagnosed with autism, color-blindness, hyperactivity, and antisocial personality disorder

73. Gender Differences in Aggression Men tend to behave more physically aggressive. This is found in various cultures are various ages. US male to female arrest ration for murder is 9 to 1. Men expressed more support for the Iraq war. 51% Men vs. 34% of Women on Bush’s Iraq policy in 2005 Gallup poll

74. Gender Differences in Social Power Whether in juries or companies, leadership tends to go to males (Colarelli 2005) As leaders men are more directive and autocratic, while women are more democratic and elicit subordinates opinions (Engen 2005) When people interact men are more likely to offer opinions while women are more likely to express support. (Wood 1987) Men are more likely to talk assertively, to interrupt, to initiate touching, to smile less, and to stare (Hall 1987) Men hold 84% of the world’s political seats in 2005 Gender differences in power lessen by middle age as men become more empathetic and women more assertive Men are more likely to hazard answers even when they don’t know. A phenomenon Giuliano calls the male answer syndrome

75. Gender Differences in Social Connectedness The notion that we struggle to create our own identity (Erikson) is geared more to individualist males than relationship oriented women (Gilligan 1982, 1990) Women, Gilligan argues, are more concerned with “making connections.” Boys play in large groups with an activity focus and little discussion Girls play in smaller groups. Their play tends to be less competitive and they are more open to feedback then males Women use conversation to explore relationships, men use it to communicate solutions (Tannen 1990) New Zealand - From a sample of student emails, people guessed the writer’s gender 66% of the time (Males were less likely to disclose emotion, personal info, and to offer apologies) (Thomson 2001) US - Women spend less time gaming and more time emailing when on computers (Crabtree 2002) France - Women make 63% of phone calls. Women talking to women = 7.2 minutes. Men to men = 4.6. (Smoreda 2000) Women purchase 85% of greeting cards 90% of people report close relationship with mother while only 69% with their father (Hugick 1989) While men enjoy doing activities side-by-side women enjoy talking face-to-face (Wright 1989)

76. Adolescence (& Childhood): Social Development Other Vocab from David Elkind Personal Fable – sense of invulnerability Imaginary Audience – teen’s belief that others are constantly monitoring them

77. Adolescence: Social Development Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

78. Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development 8 successive stages over the lifespan Crisis: must adaptively or maladaptively cope with task in each developmental stage –Respond adaptively: acquire strengths needed for next developmental stage –Respond maladaptively: less likely to be able to adapt to later problems Basic strengths: Motivating characteristics and beliefs that derive from successful resolution of crisis in each stage

79. Stage 1: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust Birth to age 1 Totally dependent on others Caregiver meets needs: child develops trust Caregiver does not meet needs: child develops mistrust Basic strength: Hope –Belief our desires will be satisfied –Feeling of confidence

80. Trust vs. Mistrust = Hope

81. Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Ages 1-3 Child able to exercise some degree of choice Child’s independence is thwarted: child develops feelings of self-doubt, shame in dealing with others Basic Strength: Will –Determination to exercise freedom of choice in face of society’s demands

82. Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

83. Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt Ages 3-5 Child expresses desire to take initiative in activities Parents punish child for initiative: child develops feelings of guilt that will affect self-directed activity throughout life Basic strength: Purpose –Courage to envision and pursue goals

84. Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

85. Stage 4: Industriousness vs. Inferiority Ages 6-11 Child develops cognitive abilities to enable in task completion (school work, play) Parents/teachers do not support child’s efforts: child develops feelings of inferiority and inadequacy Basci strength: Competence –Exertion of skill and intelligence in pursuing and completing tasks

86. Stage 4: Industriousness vs. Inferiority

87. Stages 1-4 –Largely determined by others (parents, teachers) Stages 5-8 –Individual has more control over environment –Individual responsibility for crisis resolution in each stage

88. Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion Ages 12-18 Form ego identity: self-image Strong sense of identity: face adulthood with certainty and confidence Identity crisis: confusion of ego identity Basic strength: Fidelity –Emerges from cohesive ego identity –Sincerity, genuineness, sense of duty in relationships with others

89. Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion

90. Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation Ages 18-35 (approximately) Undertake productive work and establish intimate relationships Inability to establish intimacy leads to social isolation Basic strength: Love –Mutual devotion in a shared identity –Fusing of oneself with another person

91. Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

92. Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation Ages 35-55 (approximately) Generativity: Active involvement in teaching/guiding the next generation Stagnation involves not seeking outlets for generativity Basic strength: Care –Broad concern for others –Need to teach others

93. Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair Ages 55+ Evaluation of entire life Integrity: Look back with satisfaction Despair: Review with anger, frustration Basic strength: Wisdom –Detached concern with the whole of life

94. Assessment in Erikson’s Theory Psychohistorical Analysis –Application of lifespan theory to lives of historical figures Psychological Tests: –Instruments based on crises in stages

95. Research in Erikson’s Theory Trust –Early strong bonds with mother later were more curious, sociable and popular Identity –Strong identity associated with greater cognitive and emotional functioning in college students –Crisis may begin later than age 12 –Continuing process over the lifespan

96. Research in Erikson’s Theory Generativity –Evokes need to feel closer to others –Correlated with extraversion, openness to new experiences –Likely to be involved in community, social relationships

97. Research in Erikson’s Theory Maturity –High ego integrity: spent much time reviewing their lives Ethnic Identity –Ethnic minorities: ethnic identity significant factor in determining sense of self

98. Adulthood: Physical Development Menopause – end of women’s menstral cycle; no equivalent of men but they do experience decreases Decline in physical ability Decline in senses

99. Adulthood: Cognitive Development Alzheimer’s Dementia Memory decreases Does intelligence increase or decrease with age? –Crystallized intelligence - ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience; not equate to memory, but it does rely on accessing information from long-term memory. –Fluid intelligence - the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge

101. Adulthood: Social Development Midlife Crisis? Social Clock –Culturally preferred timing of important events –i.e. moving out, marriage, parenthood, retirement Love & Work Empty Nest Syndrome –Stage of parent’s lives when their last child moves out

102. Adulthood: Social Development Elisabeth Kubler-Ross –Developed a stage theory addressing our encounters with grief. –What stages do you think are involved? –Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance –Hospice Movement