Theories of Priming II : Types of Primes Timothy McNamara Journal of Experimental Psychology,1994 조 성 식조 성 식

1/12 Contents Introduction Experiment 1 : unrelated ⇔ neutral, nonword (unrelated & neutral) General Discussions Conclusions Experiment 2 : unrelated ⇔ neutral, nonword (unrelated & nonword) Experiment 3 : same as experiment 1 but in rapidly paced Experiment 4 : same as McKoon & Ratcliff but target location changed

2/12 Introduction (1/3) The Goals of this article Spreading-Activation Model vs. Non-Spreading-Activation Model (Compound Cue model ) -To determine how association in memory gives rise to priming - McKoon & Ratcliff(1992,94) argued against the Spreading-Activation Model. Spreading-Activation ModelCompound Cue Model Retrieving an item from memory → activating its internal representation → spreads to associated concepts → residual activation accumulating at concepts facilitates their retrieval Amount of priming depends on the familiarity of the prime and target as a compound, where the compound is formed by the simultaneous presence of the prime and target in short-term memory as a test item.

3/12 Introduction (2/3) In the first article (1992) 1.Three step mediated priming in lexical decisions occurred. (e.g. gift – birthday – cake – pie ) ☞ predicted by spreading-activation theories but not the non-SAM. 2. Semantic priming occurred at a lag of 1 but not a lag of 2 in a rapidly paced sequential task. ☞ compound cues contained three but not four items. 3. If compound cues contained three items, ☞ lion-tiger-vase should be faster than truck-tiger-vase but not. ☞ lonk-lion-tiger should be slower than long-lion-tiger but not.

4/12 Introduction (3/3) Types of Primes 구분예 Spreading-ActivationNon Spreading-Activation Related gift – birthday Priming occurred Unrelate d vase -tiger Predict no differences among them because the prime should affect responses to the target only if it is associated with target. Predict differences between unrelated and neutral or nonword because familiarity and cue size of them are different Neutral ready, blank Nonword lonk-lion ( long-lion)

5/12 Experiment 1 [ unrelated ⇔ neutral, nonword (unrelated & neutral) ] Goals - to compare performance in the unrelated, neutral, and nonword prime conditions. (manipulated unrelated & neutral) Methods - Subjects : 39 undergraduates - Materials & Design - Procedure Results

6/12 Experiment 2 [unrelated ⇔ neutral, nonword (unrelated & nonword)] Goals - to compare performance in the unrelated, neutral, and nonword prime conditions. (manipulated unrelated & nonword) Methods - Subjects : 40 undergraduates - identical to experiment 1 except that between trial relatedness was manipulated in the unrelated & nonword prime conditions. Results

7/12 Experiment 3 (same as experiment 1 but in rapidly paced) Goals - Any differences in shorter interval ? Methods - Subjects : 56 undergraduates - identical to experiment 1 but removing nonword prime trials and reducing elapsed 3,200ms to 550ms Results

8/12 Experiment 4 (same as McKoon & Ratcliff but target location changed) Goals - To compare with McKoon & Ratcliff’s experiments Methods - Subjects : 40 undergraduates - same materials and design as experiment 3 - same as McKoon & Ratcliff but target location changed Results

9/12 General Discussion (1/3) - Compound cues contain three but not four successive items. -> but cake–pie–letter does not occur. (not faster than case-pie-letter ) - Three-step priming seems to occur in lexical decisions. -> predicted by spreading activation but not by non spreading activation. - No evidence that performance was inhibited or facilitated by nonword or neutral primes. No evidence that these primes were replaced by targets on preceding trials. - If compound cues contain three items, then the lexical status of the item preceding the prime should affect responses to the target. -> but lonk-cake–pie were not slower than long-case-pie. The important findings in the four experiments Summary of Parts I & II - Semantic priming occurred in each experiment. - The speed and the accuracy of responses were virtually identical in the unrelated-word, neutral, and nonword prime conditions. - No evidence that between-trials semantic priming was larger in either the neutral or nonword prime conditions than in the unrelated-word prime condition.

10/12 General Discussion (2/3) More arguments on Compound cue model - Mediated priming Spreading Activation : prime - mediator 1 - mediator 2 - target Compound cue : prime – target (weakly and directly associated) - Priming on post target word Spreading Activation : prime – target – post target Compound cue : prime – target – post target (not expected if the post target word receives most of the weight in the compound cue) - Sequential effects Compound cue provides a new model of sequential effects ? Sequential effects are a response effect, not a memory effect.

11/12 General Discussion (3/3) Alternative models - Masson’s model(1992) Pronunciation Task - Hopfield net(1986) organized conceptually as three processing modules, which correspond to orthographic, phonological, and semantic knowledge.

12/12 Conclusions The results were more consistent with Spreading Activation theory but a critic could argue that : a)Multiple-step priming is not definitive. (because weak direct associations may exist between the primes and the targets.) a)It may be possible to explain the lag effects if the parameters in a model of memory and a model of response latency are set in just the right way, or b)nonword and neutral primes are replaced by extralist contextual elements. Spreading-Activation continues to be a compelling candidate for a basic mechanism of retrieval in human memory. ※ PDP (Parallel Distributed Processing) : 병렬분산처리 - 인지과정이 뇌의 여러 영역에 분산되어 있는 지식을 이용하는 병렬적 조작에 기초 - 기억은 뉴런과 같은 단위들의 네트워크로 구성 1. 이것은 주황색이다. 2. 이것은 땅속에서 자란다. 3. 이것은 야채이다. 4. 토끼가 특히 이것을 좋아한다. 1. 이것의 이름은 “ ㄷ ” 으로 시작한다. 2. 이것은 농가의 앞마당에 산다. 3. 이것은 전형적으로 노란색이다. 4. 이것은 “ 꿀꿀 ” 하고 운다.

13/12 * * * * * 350 ms

14/12 Blank interval 500 ms

15/12 prime 300 ms

16/12 Blank interval 50 ms

17/12 target m key for words, z key for nonwords

18/12 ERROR A response was incorrect. 1 sec

19/12 Blank interval for next trial : 2 sec