© 2003 Wadsworth Publishing Co. Chapter Fifteen Police Criminology 9 th edition Larry J. Siegel

The Criminal Justice System POLICE I Courts and Corrections

Police as Gatekeepers of The Criminal Justice Process Discretion and the Power to Arrest

Question Can police behavior create criminality? If so, in what way?

Discretion Freedom to act or judge on one’s own; there is a wide latitude of choice and action. Most police officers use a high degree of personal discretion in carrying out daily tasks based on situational, legal, and extralegal factors. This can result in such things as selective enforcement, discrimination, violence and abuse. Most police officers use a high degree of personal discretion in carrying out daily tasks based on situational, legal, and extralegal factors. This can result in such things as selective enforcement, discrimination, violence and abuse.

How Is Discretion Controlled? Legal mandates that dictate certain procedures. Department policies, rules, regulations and orders.  Rewards go to officers who obey;  Punishments to those that don’t obey Acceptance or rejection of the behavior by the police subculture. Community structure, attitudes and beliefs. Legal mandates that dictate certain procedures. Department policies, rules, regulations and orders.  Rewards go to officers who obey;  Punishments to those that don’t obey Acceptance or rejection of the behavior by the police subculture. Community structure, attitudes and beliefs.

Major Issues Regarding the Role of Police in Today’s Society More sensitive to public concerns, i.e., community policing Minority issues, i.e., inhouse as well as community wide High visibility affects perceptions of behavior Use of force and treatment of citizens

The Police Personality Isolation & Conflict = Stress Negative Values: Authoritarian Suspicious Racist Hostility Insecurity Conservative Cynical

The Police Subculture Characteristics Cynicism Clannishness Secrecy Isolation from others (The “blue curtain”) The need for solidarity Cynicism Clannishness Secrecy Isolation from others (The “blue curtain”) The need for solidarity

Race and Gender in Policing Police and minorities Do minority member police officers face any different pressures than do majority member police officers? Race and force

Questions & Discussion Does gender and race of the police officer affect decision-making during routine stops? During calls for service? During crowd control? Explain Randall Kennedy’s position when he states that, “African Americans are the group most likely to benefit from aggressive law enforcement efforts.”

Women in Police Work Role of women in policing is restricted by:  social barriers including: gender conflict jealousy stereotyping  administrative barriers including: under-representation at senior administrative levels selective utilization of their skills and training Role of women in policing is restricted by:  social barriers including: gender conflict jealousy stereotyping  administrative barriers including: under-representation at senior administrative levels selective utilization of their skills and training

Question How effective are female police officers as compared to male police officers? Do minority female police officers face unique issues? If so, explain.

Research Results About Women in Policing Women are less likely to use a firearm in a violent confrontation than male officers. Women are more emotionally stable than male officers. Women are less likely to seriously injure a citizen than male officers. Women are no more likely to suffer injuries than their male partners. Women are less likely to use a firearm in a violent confrontation than male officers. Women are more emotionally stable than male officers. Women are less likely to seriously injure a citizen than male officers. Women are no more likely to suffer injuries than their male partners.

Patrol Functions Law enforcement functions: arrest, investigations, participating in trials, and deterrence. Order maintenance functions: resolving conflict, vehicular and pedestrian control, and maintaining civil order. Service functions: aiding individuals, providing emergency medical services, public education, and maintaining police services.

Does Patrol Work: The Kansas City Study Variations in patrol techniques (normal, proactive, and reactive) had very little effect on crime and citizens’ attitudes towards the police.

Four Investigative Functions Suspect identified & detective gathers evidence. Suspect identified & detective gathers evidence. No suspect identified & detective seeks identity. No suspect identified & detective seeks identity. No suspect, no crime but a hunch something may be up & therefore needs watching. No suspect, no crime but a hunch something may be up & therefore needs watching. Maintaining surveillance over known suspect before a crime is committed. Maintaining surveillance over known suspect before a crime is committed.

How Effective Are Investigations? Much time is spent on nonproductive work. Chances of making an arrest are most closely linked to when it was reported.  33% chance if reported in progress  10% chance if reported 1 minute later  5% if more than 15 minutes lapsed before reporting the crime Much time is spent on nonproductive work. Chances of making an arrest are most closely linked to when it was reported.  33% chance if reported in progress  10% chance if reported 1 minute later  5% if more than 15 minutes lapsed before reporting the crime

Community-Oriented Policing Problem-solving is best done at the neighborhood level not in some distant headquarters. Locally situated police working with residents are a good problem-solving team. Problem-solving is best done at the neighborhood level not in some distant headquarters. Locally situated police working with residents are a good problem-solving team.

Police Encounters with Citizens

Community-Oriented Policing Citizens must actively participate with police in fighting crime. Power must be shared with local groups to give way to a “bottom-up” decision-making process.

Community-Oriented Policing Ways of Reducing Fear u Police-community newsletter u Community-organized response team u Citizen contact program - keeps individual officers in the same part of the city u Victim re-contact program u Police community contact center staffed by patrol officers, civilian coordinators and aides. u Police-community newsletter u Community-organized response team u Citizen contact program - keeps individual officers in the same part of the city u Victim re-contact program u Police community contact center staffed by patrol officers, civilian coordinators and aides.

Problem Oriented Policing Based on the premise that police departments were devoting too many of their resources to reacting to calls for service and too little to “acting on their own initiative to prevent or reduce community problems” Based on the premise that police departments were devoting too many of their resources to reacting to calls for service and too little to “acting on their own initiative to prevent or reduce community problems”

Principles of Problem Oriented Policing A problem is something that concerns the community not just police officers. A problem is a group or pattern of incidents, i.e., gang hangouts, street level drug dealers, or prostitution rings. Police must be aware of competing interests, and respect them in dealing with the problem. Problem solving is a long-term strategy. Problem solving requires an increased level of creativity and initiative on the part of the patrol officers.

Hot Spots of Crime Hot spot mapping is an example of Problem Oriented Policing. This concept concentrates on a relatively few locations that produce a significant portion of all police calls. Hot spot mapping is an example of Problem Oriented Policing. This concept concentrates on a relatively few locations that produce a significant portion of all police calls.

Geographic Information Systems and Auto Theft in Portland, Oregon

Police and the Rule of Law Balancing the needs of efficient law enforcement with the constitutional rights of citizens.

Custodial Interrogation Miranda v. Arizona (1966) You have the right to remain silent. If you decide to make a statement, the statement can and will be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to have an attorney present at the time of the interrogation, or you will have an opportunity to consult with an attorney. If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you by the state. 5th

Search and Seizures and the Exclusionary Rule 4 th Amendment Protection Weeks v. United States - established the exclusionary rule for the federal court. Wolf v. Colorado - warned states that the exclusionary rule may apply to them. Mapp v. Ohio - exclusionary rule applies to state court actions.

Police and Violence What is excessive use of force? Where does verbal abuse or harassment factor in within today’s community policing?

Police Brutality What is it? 4 Abusive language 4 Unnecessary use of force or coercion 4 Threats 4 Harassment Those most likely to have force used against them are those who show disrespect for the police once they have been arrested. Those most likely to have force used against them are those who show disrespect for the police once once they have been arrested.

Deadly Force Data suggests about 250 people are killed by the police each year. Unreported data indicate this number may actually approach 1,000 each year (however, 51 officers killed in the line of duty in 2000). A disproportionate number of police shootings involve minorities. However, if such factors as armed suspects, violent crime and attacks on officers are considered, racial differences are insignificant. Data suggests about 250 people are killed by the police each year. Unreported data indicate this number may actually approach 1,000 each year (however, 51 officers killed in the line of duty in 2000). A disproportionate number of police shootings involve minorities. However, if such factors as armed suspects, violent crime and attacks on officers are considered, racial differences are insignificant.

Factors Related to Police Shootings 4 Characteristics of the police jurisdiction 4 Exposure to violence 4 Workload of officers 4 Availability of firearms (gun density) 4 Social variables of individuals in the area 4 Administrative policies 4 Race of officer and suspects 4 Characteristics of the police jurisdiction 4 Exposure to violence 4 Workload of officers 4 Availability of firearms (gun density) 4 Social variables of individuals in the area 4 Administrative policies 4 Race of officer and suspects

Controlling Use of Deadly Force Tennessee v. Garner (1985) Put an end to any local police policy that allowed officers to shoot unarmed or non- dangerous offenders if they resisted or attempted to flee. Administrative Policies State and Local policies and review boards. Accountability. Federal Crime Control Act of Personal philosophies of the chief and department affect control of deadly force.

Question What trends will influence policing during the coming decade?