Functional Groups

Ether General formula: R-O-R or R-O-R’ where R or R’ may be an alkyl Name ends with ether

2.9 Amines Organic derivatives of ammonia (NH3) N of amines can be considered as sp3 hybridized Name ends with amine as part of root

2.10 Aldehydes and Ketones Both contain carbonyl group Carbon has a double bon to oxygen Trigonal planar arrangement

Aldehydes and Ketones General formula

2.11 Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Amides Carbonyl that is bonded to an oxygen or nitrogen atom

Esters general formula: RCO 2 R’ (or RCOOR’) Carbonyl is bonded to an alkoxyl (-OR ) group

Ester Can be made from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol through the acid-catalyzed loss of a molecule of water

2.11 Amides General formula: RCONH 2, RCONHR’ or RCONR’R” Carbonyl group is bonded to a nitrogen atom bearing hydrogen/or alkyl groups

2.12 Nitriles IUPAC nomenclature: addition of suffix nitrile to the root name

2.14 Physical Properties and Molecular Structure melting point (MP) boiling point (BP) measure the temperature at which transitions occurs between phase physical properties

Ion-Ion Forces Melting point of a substance is the temperature at which an equilibrium exists between solid and liquid state Ionic compounds are held together by the ion-ion force Charges attraction Symmetrical molecule has higher MP

Ion-Ion forces Boiling point: temperature at which a liquid becomes gas Larger molecular weight, the more interaction sites, thus more bonds to be broken Heavier substance, the greater the energy needed to give the molecules sufficient impetus to break these intermolecular forces  higher BP Branches molecules have lower BP

Dipole-Dipole Forces Compounds with different polarity will have a dipole-dipole moment Causes the molecule to orient themselves so the positive end is directed toward the negative end

Hydrogen bond Polar molecules, such as water molecules, have a weak, partial negative charge at one region of the molecule (the oxygen atom in water) and a partial positive charge elsewhere (the hydrogen atoms in water).

Hydrogen bond The attraction created by hydrogen bonds keeps water liquid over a wider range of temperature than is found for any other molecule its size. The energy required to break multiple hydrogen bonds causes water to have a high heat of vaporization; that is, a large amount of energy is needed to convert liquid water, where the molecules are attracted through their hydrogen bonds, to water vapor, where they are not

van der Waals forces

van der Waals Forces Also known as London forces or dispersion forces is the attractive or repulsive force between molecules other than those due to covalent bonds or to the electrostatic interaction of ions with one another or with neutral molecules why does methane melt and boil at low temperature? Why does methane, a nonionic, nonpolar substance, become solid and liquid at all?

van der Waals forces Nonpolar compound has weak intermolecular forces, used less energy Boil at low temp Heavier molecules required greater amount of energy to escape from liquid to gaseous Larger surface, greater van der Waals interaction

Solubilities

In the process of dissolving, molecules or ions must be separate from each other Energy required to overcome lattice energies and intermolecular or interionic attractions come from the formation of new attractive forces between solute and solvent Water is highly polar and is capable to form strong hydrogen bonds Polar and ionic compounds tend to dissolve in polar solvent Like dissolves like

Solubilities Long carbon chain  less soluble If it’s an alcohol then we must consider the two ends of the molecule Hydrophilic – water loving Hydrophobic – water avoiding