C hapter Sixteen Social Psychology © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Social Psychology Study of how others influence our thoughts Feelings actions © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

OUR THOUGHTS ABOUT OTHERS © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

True or False? 1. Most people judge others more harshly than they judge themselves? 2. Inducing cognitive dissonance is a great way to change attitudes? 3. There are positive as well as negative forms of prejudice? 4. Looks are the primary factor in our initial feelings of attraction, liking, and romantic love? 5. Opposites attract? 6. Romantic love rarely lasts longer than 1 or 2 years? © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 7. People wearing masks are more likely to engage in aggressive acts. 8. Groups generally make riskier or more conservative decisions than a single individual does? 9. Watching a violent sports match or punching a pillow is a not a good way to let off steam and reduce aggression? 10. When people are alone, they are more likely to help another individual than when they are in a group?

True or False? © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. All of these questions are True except for #5 #5 if False

Attributions Attribution How we explain our own and others’ actions Mistaken Attributions Fundamental attribution error (FAE) Self-serving bias © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Fundamental Attribution Error Attributing people’s behavior to internal (dispositional) causes rather than external (situational) factors; related to the actor-observer bias Explanations for the FAE: Saliency Bias Focusing on the most noticeable (salient) factors when explaining the causes of behavior Just-World Phenomenon Tendency to believe that people generally get what they deserve © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Fundamental Attribution Error © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Self-serving Bias Taking credit for our successes and externalizing our failures © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Culture and Attribution Collectivistic cultures tend to be more aware of situational constraints for others Less likely to experience the FAE and self-serving bias © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Culture and Attribution Can you give an example of a collectivistic culture? Can you give an example of an individualistic culture? © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Attitudes Learned predisposition to respond cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally to a particular object © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Dissonance Unpleasant tension and anxiety caused by a discrepancy between an attitude and a behavior A way to create attitude change © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Dissonance Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Dissonance: An Example © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Dissonance: Summary © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

OUR FEELINGS ABOUT OTHERS © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudice A learned, generally negative, attitude toward members of a group Three components: 1.Thoughts (stereotypes) 2.Feelings/Emotions 3.Behavioral tendencies (possible discrimination) Implicit Bias Hidden, automatic attitude that may serve as a guide to behaviors independent of a person’s awareness or control © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Prejudice and Discrimination Stereotype A set of beliefs about the characteristics of people in a group that is generalized to all group members; the cognitive component of prejudice Discrimination Negative behaviors directed at members of a group © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Prejudice and Discrimination © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Major Sources of Prejudice and Discrimination © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Stereotypes and Classificati on Ingroup Favoritism Viewing members of the ingroup more positively than members of an outgroup Outgroup Homogeneity Effect Judging members of an outgroup as more alike and less diverse than members of the ingroup © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination Cooperation and Common Goals Encourage cooperation and not competition Intergroup Contact Close interaction, interdependence, equal status Cognitive Retraining Perspective taking, focus on similarities Cognitive Dissonance Examples that don’t conform to prejudiced views © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Interpersonal Attraction Positive feelings toward another Three key factors: 1.Physical attractiveness 2.Proximity 3.Similarity © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Physical Attractiveness Factor in initial liking Physically attractive individuals of all ages receive more positive interactions, success, and health benefits Perceived attractiveness is also influenced by nonphysical traits Matching hypothesis—people of equal attractiveness tend to select each other as partners © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Flirting Women Often initiate Glances Smile Hand gestures Primping Sit straighter Body orientation Whispers Touches Play behaviors Men Make the first approach Look for clear signals © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Proximity Attraction based on geographic closeness Important for initial liking Mere exposure—repeated exposure increases liking, unless it is a negative stimulus © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Similarity Major factor in long-term relationships Prefer similarity in many different aspects of life and personhood “Birds of a feather flock together” Need complementarity—attraction toward those with qualities we admire but personally lack Need compatibility—attraction based on sharing similar needs © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love Three Components of Love Intimacy Passion Commitment © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Love Romantic Intense feeling of attraction to another within an erotic context and with future expectations Near universal Typically short lived Largely based on mystery and fantasy Interference can increase these feelings Companionate Strong and lasting attraction characterized by trust, caring, tolerance, and friendship Grows stronger with time Overlook each other’s faults © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Culture and Attractiveness Some universals: Men—maturity, ambitiousness, financial resources (suggest support for partner and family) Women—looks and youth (suggest fertility) Also differences in what is considered beautiful © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

OUR ACTIONS TOWARD OTHERS © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Social Influence Which line (A, B, or C) matches the line on the right (X)? Two primary types of social influence: Conformity Obedience © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Conformity Changing behavior because of real or imagined group pressure Normative Social Influence Conforming to group pressure out of a need for approval and acceptance Norm Cultural rule of behavior prescribing what is acceptable in a given situation Informational Social Influence Conforming because of a need for information and direction Reference Groups People we conform to because we like and admire them and want to be like them © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Obedience Following direct commands, usually from an authority figure © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Milgram’s Studies of Obedience © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Milgram’s Studies of Obedience © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Obedience Four factors in obedience: 1.Legitimacy and closeness of the authority figure 2.Remoteness of the victim 3.Assignment of responsibility 4.Modeling or imitating others © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reducing Destructive Obedience Socialization Power of the situation—e.g., roles Groupthink Foot-in-the-door—small requests build to larger requests Relaxed moral guard Disobedient models © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Group Processes Group membership Group decision making © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Group Membership Roles Stanford Prison Study (Zimbardo) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Group Membership Deindividuation—reduced self-consciousness, inhibition, and personal responsibility that sometimes occurs in a group, particularly when the members feel anonymous © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Group Decision Making Group Polarization Group’s movement toward either riskier or more conservative behavior, depending on the members’ initial dominant tendency Groupthink Faulty decision making that occurs when a highly cohesive group strives for agreement and avoids inconsistent information © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Groupthink © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Groupthink © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Groupthink © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Aggression Any behavior intended to harm another living being Some approaches for reducing aggression: Catharsis typically doesn’t help Incompatible responses Improve social and communication skills © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Aggression Biological Factors Instincts Genes Brain and Nervous System Substance Abuse and Other Mental Disorders Hormones and Neurotransmitters Psychosocial Factors Aversive Stimuli Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis—blocking of a desired goal (frustration) creates anger that may lead to aggression Culture and Learning Violent Media © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Altruism Actions designed to help others with no obvious benefit to the helper © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Explanatory models: 1.Evolutionary — favors survival of one’s genes 2.Egoistic — motivated by anticipated gain 3.Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis — due to empathy for someone in need

Altruism © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Altruism and Decision Making Diffusion of Responsibility—dilution (diffusion) of personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.