Adapted from: Govier, T. A Practical Study of Argument. Wadsworth Publishing Company; Belmont California

Argument: a set of claims that a person puts forward in an attempt to persuade an audience that some further claim is true. When we use arguments, we try to persuade in a rational way by providing evidence to back up our view. The evidence are called the premises (facts), and the view being argued for is called the conclusion (opinion). A person who argues does not merely state what he/she thinks, that person states what he/she thinks and gives reasons intended to back up his/her view.

Below is the model of an argument that has three premises (facts). Premise (fact)Frey is in a bad mood Premise (fact)Frey is wearing mismatched socks Premise (fact)Frey is incoherent So, Conclusion (opinion)Frey did not get enough sleep last night The word so indicates that the conclusion is being proven by the premises supporting it. The word so is one of a large number of words called indicator words. These words may indicate the presence of an argument. Some come before the premise(s), others come before the conclusion.

Before the premiseBefore the conclusion sincethus becausetherefore forhence follows fromaccordingly as shown byfor all these reasons we can see that as indicated byon these grounds it is clear that may be inferred fromconsequently may be derived fromproves that may be deduced fromit follows that for the reasons thatwe can conclude that

WHAT ISN’T AN ARGUMENT? Not all passages are arguments. Sometimes they are questions, descriptions, explanations, jokes, and so on. Look at the following video: Not an argument!!!!! Now, look at the following sentences, none of which are arguments;

John was late for school because he stopped to pick flowers in the park. This is a brief explanation for John’s being late for school. What were the causes of World War I? Raises a question rather than trying to claim anything. It was a crisp and frosty September morning, but so many problems occupied their minds that the beauty of the day went unappreciated. Simply describes a situation. In these sentences there is no attempt at persuasion. Instead, they serve other purposes in human life and language.

WHERE AND HOW DO YOU FIND ARGUMENTS? Indicator words can often help you to find arguments, because they show that a conclusion is being given support by premises; a) There can be no such thing as the beginning of time, because all beginnings are in time, and there would be no time in which the beginning could be located. The conclusion is “there can be no such thing as the beginning of time.” The indicator word because introduces two premises that support the conclusion and tell us why this conclusion is supposed to be true.

b) Since the meaning of a word must be understood by all the people who use that word, the meaning of a word cannot be a mental image in any one person’s head. The word since introduces the premise that tells you why the conclusion (that the meaning of a word can’t be a mental image) is supposed to hold.

c) Any even number larger than two is divisible by two. Two is divisible only by itself and one. A prime number is any number divisible only by itself and one. Therefore, two is the only prime number that is even. The three premises are contained in the three sentences that precede the word therefore. This word explicitly introduces the conclusion that two is the only prime number.

In these simple examples the indicator words make it very easy to see that there are arguments, and to see what the premises and conclusion are. However, it is not always so easy…

One way to identify an argument is if there is a rejection of a theory or claim. For example, if someone writes “while this theory has long been believed to be true, it is false.” A second way to identify an argument is to start by finding the conclusion. If you cannot come up with a conclusion, you cannot see the passage as containing an argument. If you think you have found a conclusion, look at the rest of the passage to see if it gives reasons to support that conclusion. If you can do this, and the writer is trying to persuade others that a claim is true, then you are reading a passage that contains an argument.

For each of the following passages, determine whether it does or does not contain an argument. 1The mind cannot be a purely physical entity, for physical entities can be divided into spatial parts, and the mind cannot be divided into spatial parts. 2The sun was setting on the hillside when she left. The air had a peculiar smoky aroma, the leaves were beginning to fall, and she sensed all around her the faintly melancholy atmosphere that comes when summer and summer romances are about to end. 3Smith always thought Jones was very temperamental.

4Every economic solution to a problem will benefit some and disadvantage others. If no one is willing to take a loss, then either people will be coerced into accepting losses, or change will be impossible. Since no group is willing to accept a loss it follows that the choice is between no solution at all, and coercion. 5“If all goes well, the reactor and the steam generators in a nuclear power plant of the pressurized-water variety maintain a stable, businesslike relationship such as might obtain between complementary monopolies. The reactor can be thought of as selling heat to the steam generators”. 6If a person really stays on the Weight Watcher’s diet, he or she is bound to lose some weight. Joe didn’t lose weight, so he can’t have kept to the diet.