1. Introduction to Philosophy Lecture 1-b What is Philosophy? (Part 2) By David Kelsey

2. Arguments The second major task of philosophy is making arguments. A philosopher makes arguments in performing his conceptual analysis. –An argument about the correct definition of KNOWLEDGE or LOVE An argument: one statement is inferred from one or more other statements. –Example:. Inference: a statement that follows from one or more other statements. –The inference made: –‘Infer’ can also be used as a verb: –Infer the noun:

3. Propositions are the meanings of sentences An inference: a statement that follows from one or more other statements. A statement is a proposition. A proposition: the meaning of a sentence Words have meanings: –Cat Just as words have meanings, sentences have meanings. –Example: The cat is on the Mat.

4. Propositions The form of a proposition: –‘it is the case that…’. –Propositions are true or false.

5. Propositions & Sentences A sentence does two different things: it both expresses a proposition and asserts a proposition. The expressed proposition: –The literal meaning of the words of that sentence. –What is literal meaning? –Example in Sarcasm

6. Expressing a proposition For a sentence to express a proposition : –is for that sentence to toss the proposition up in the air, so to speak. –It is to put the proposition up for usage. Knowing what proposition a sentence expresses is often quite easy. –It is the case that… –Example: I went to the store

7. The asserted Proposition Making use of a proposition: –Just how a sentence makes use of the proposition it expresses determines it’s actual or intended meaning. The actual or intended meaning of a sentence: what the speaker or writer of the sentence means when she writes or says it. –Miscommunication and the hearer’s understanding of the asserted proposition…

8. Asserting a proposition #2 Assertion: –The actual or intended meaning of a sentence is what is asserted by the words of the sentence. Declaration: –For a sentence to assert a proposition is simply for the sentence to declare of the proposition that it is the case. –Example: the cat is on the mat and the cat is orange.

9. Sarcasm Other kinds of sentences: Sarcasm: –The messy roomate: “She always takes out the trash”. This sentence expresses: But the sentence asserts:

10. The laws of logic The laws of logic: are rules for making a correct inference P given a certain set of propositions Q 1-n. –Socrates example Arguments: when one proposition is inferred from one or more other propositions –Other definitions of an Argument

11. Arguments Argument: a position supported by reasons for its truth. –To take a position: taking a side or stand on an issue. –An issue: what is raised when one considers whether or not a proposition is true. There are always 2 sides to an issue

12. Issues Issues: –we might go as far as to say that an issue just is a question. –Intelligent life: –Safety belt law: –Mac vs. Pc:

13. Arguments & Positions Arguments & Positions: so when we take a position on an issue and support it with reasons we have given an argument. –Intelligent life: –Safety Belt law: –Mac vs. Pc:

14. Conclusions & Premises Arguments: –The conclusion of an argument: –The premises of an argument: –Examples: Socrates again Raining and Pouring

15. What an argument isn’t What an argument isn’t: Let us be a bit clearer about what an argument is by stating what it isn’t. –Not a Fight: –Not Persuasion: Advertisement example:

16. Persuasion Persuasion vs. Argument: –An argument offers support for some claim, its conclusion. –Persuasion needn’t offer any support for a point. Not Logic: It merely attempts to get you to believe a point. –This attempt needn’t be one through logic though. Persuasion through rhetoric: Rhetoric: is “a broad category of linguistic techniques people use when their primary objective is to influence beliefs and attitudes and behavior”

17. Arguments vs. Explanations Arguments vs. Explanations: –Explanation of X: If one gives an explanation about some thing X, one gives some details about X with the hope of coming to better understand X. Example: fixing a flat tire

18. Recognizing Arguments Conclusion Indicators: find the conclusion of an argument by looking for conclusion indicators. –Examples of Conclusion Indicators: therefore, hence, and others Premise Indicators: find the premises of an argument by looking for premise indicators –Examples of Premise Indicators: because, since, and others.

19. An introduction to formalizing an argument Challenging an argument: –In challenging an argument you must first formalize it. Formalizing an argument: –Is the reconstruction of that argument in its most simplified form. Read the passage Write down the argument’s propositions

20. Explicit Premises Explicit premises: –asserted by the words of the text. Simplifying the premises:

21. Implicit Premises Implicit or unstated premises: –Not made explicit by the text so must be inferred from the words of the text –Are entailed by the words of the text. P  Q –Bloodhound example: Moore’s dog is a bloodhound, so it has a keen sense of smell What is the implicit premise?